Human Rights Violation of Biharis in Bangladesh Essay

Statement of the problem : Bangladesh is an impoverished country of over 160 million people. In its short history as an independent nation, Bangladesh has faced a major civil war, massive internal displacement, famines and frequent natural disasters. In addition, Bangladesh is hosting over 500,000 Biharis and in recent years it recognized the nationality rights of large numbers of Urdu-speaking minority. About half a million Urdu speaking people known as in Bangladesh as ‘Bihari’ or ‘Stranded Pakistanis’ currently live in 66 camps spread all over the country. They have become a marginally displaced community since 1971. The creation of Bangladesh in 1971 put these people in a stateless situation. Although they are residing in â€Å"refugee camps,† the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) does not recognize them as refugees. Therefore, they are deprived of the benefits and opportunities extended to the refugees by the UNHCR. As a consequence, the stranded Biharis in Bangladesh face multiple problems. Despite this recent progress, however, 37 years of non-recognition have left the Biharis living in abject poverty and vulnerable to discrimination. Human rights violation of stranded Biharis in our country is common scenery. These people are in the museum of exploitation. The Bihari camps are mainly in urban areas and are beset by severe overcrowding, poor sanitation and lack of basic facilities. The slum like conditions in these settlements have worsened over the years as the population has grown. With inadequate provision for clean water, waste disposal and sewage systems, they are chronic hygiene problems. Camp residents face discrimination in the job market and a severe lack of education and health- care facilities hampers community development. Read more:  Essay About Bangladesh Liberation War Discrimination and poverty are the key elements that lead to anti social activities They are still denied access to a Bangladeshi passport. No NGOs or UN agencies have taken the initiative to collect comprehensive baseline data from which to develop both short- and long term programmes for the social and economic rehabilitation of this community. In spite of getting citizenship document no changes have been made in the everyday life of camps as well as strategy and the policy of the government seems to be unchanged. What does it mean; are Biharis non citizens in the process of Digital Bangladesh that their national ID card and citizenship documents are not enough to prove them citizen? As a conscious citizen of Bangladesh and also as a student of Peace and Conflict Studies Department, I am very much interested in this field for doing a fruitful research. Because, I think at present time, this stranded Biharis is a great national concerning issue. If they remain marginal for a long time, our national security might be hampered and they can pose a serious threat to our socio- economic development. So in my research, I would like to focus that their current situation must be improved through the various initiatives of state Government, NGOs and other International Organizations. 1.1 Background of the Study: The case of the Biharis in Bangladesh is different from other cases of denial of citizenship because the government considered them as a foreign group of individuals that ought to return to Pakistan. In fact Biharis never resided in Pakistan, but originally entered East Pakistan as refugees fleeing India at the time of its accession to independence. Their movement to East Pakistan was due to a desire to escape from communal bloodshed and â€Å"to preserve their Islamic way of life†. They also saw Hijrat (migration) as an escape from the possibility of living in a Hindu majority India. Actually, the history of the Bihari goes back to the partition of India in 1947. During the period of united Pakistan (1947-1971), the Urdu-speaking Biharis were not incorporated with in the society of East Pakistan and remained as a distinct cultural-linguistic group. They generally associated and identified themselves with the West Pakistani society because of their cultural similarity and shared linguistic heritage. They supported the West Pakistani governing leaders in the process of capturing the economic and political power in East Pakistan. The Biharis consequently, enjoyed government patronage and preferential treatment in various sectors of the East Pakistan economy. Initially the arrival of Biharis and the positive discrimination of the Pakistan Government in terms of refugee rehabilitation were not resented by the Bengalis. But, the positive attitude of the Bengalis towards the Biharis was short-lived. During the Language Movement, the Biharis instead of supporting the Bengalis sided with the West Pakistani ruling elite. Further, in the 1954 provincial elections and in the 1970 general elections, they extended their support to the Muslim League, which symbolized the domination of the West Pakistanis over the Bengalis. They also opposed the Bengalis’ freedom struggle and many of them actively participated in the military actions against the Bengalis in the 1971 Bangladesh Independence War. The exclusive attitude of the Biharis and their pro-West Pakistani political activities culminated with the growth of an anti-Bihari sentiment among the Bengalis.The Bihari community never assimilated with the local people and maintained alliance with the West Pakistani regime against the interest of the Bengali people. When Bangladesh finally achieved independence, Bihari people wanted to go to West Pakistan, but could not do so immediately due to complication in repatriation process. This situation left them stranded in Bangladesh. They were promised of repatriation to Pakistan, but this promise was never fully materialized. After the war, thousands of Biharis were willingly deported to Pakistan. The 300,000 who remained in Bangladesh moved into refugee camps set up by the International Red Cross, awaiting flights to Pakistan that never came because of diplomatic wrangling. Today 40 years later the stranded Biharis and their descendents are still living in these camps. In 2008, a Supreme Court decision recognized their nationality rights. A large percentage of the adults were registered to vote in the 2009 election. But after decades of isolation and discrimination, they are still out from the fundamental rights for which they have been passing their days under sub-human condition in 66 shelter camps in the country. There we see that 94% are illiterate, almost double the national rate. Despite being registered as voters and recognized as citizens, many Urdu speakers still are also unable to obtain government jobs, access credit, get passports or obtain compensation for their property confiscated during the war. They do not have freedom of movement. 1.2 Rationale of the Research: Study of human rights is considered as one of the interesting and important courses of our Department of Peace and Conflict Studies. On the other hand, various social problems are main discussed phenomena for social researchers. In the context, the inhuman situation of Bihari people which they are experiencing in their daily lives is a matter of serious concern. There is very little research findings on this field. Some NGOs and individuals have worked on this topic; such as BRAC, RMMRU (Refugee and Migratory Movements Research Unit) etc but it is very poor comparing the importance and intensity of the problems they face. So I believe that my research on this issue will be able to add a holistic and incomparable introduction in the research field. In this regard, I think it is very much important and rationale to identify the root cause, and find solution to their problems of human rights violation. 1.3 Objective of the Study: The main and broader objective of the study is * To depict the human rights situation of the stranded Biharis and find out the root causes of various problems faced by them. Other Objectives: * To present a realistic solution of the problem regarding both Government and non-Government initiatives and also Biharis’ opinion on solution to their problem. So this paper tries to explore the socio-economic condition of the Bihari people, the problems they are facing now and their opinion about their resentments. 1.4 Research Question: The questions of the study are: * What are the rights, Biharis are yet to get as human being? * What types of human rights violation they face? * What initiatives are taken by national and international community for the better improvement of their miserable condition 1.5 Study Area: Biharis are a minority community who live in 66 camps in different districts of Bangladesh. All these camps are located in the urban areas. Bihari people are Muslims. Maximum Bihari live together at Geneva Camp, Mohammadpur in Dhaka. In Bangladesh Geneva Camp is the biggest place for them. For my study I have chosen Mohammedpur Geneva Camp which is located within Dhaka City Corporation Ward No. 45 in Dhaka city for data collection. I have visited the Geneva Camp to collect data from the residence in that camp. There are nine blocks in Geneva camp, which are alphabetically named. The camp is divided into two parts. Block A and B are located in one part and from block C to block I are in second part. The largest block is â€Å"C† and the smallest is â€Å"I†. I have visited almost every block for the collection of data and also visited the SPGRC office, the school named shurovi and the al-Falah Clinic. 1.6 Operational Definition of the Study : Bihari: Bihari, originally a Hindi word, literally means a person belonging to the Indian State of Bihar. In Bangladesh, ‘Bihari’ is a word usually considerd offensive for a non-local, speaking Urdu. Biharis did not come from the Indian State of Bihar alone. They came from other parts of India as well, and were largely distinguishable by their life-style that bound these people from their former homelands into an identifiable minority group with the commonly spoken and understood language of Urdu. In today’s Bangladesh, Biharis are the descendents of those optees and emigrants, who came to East Bengal after the great divide of India in 1947, many government employees under the British administration, were deputed to places in East Bengal. Among them, a large number of people came from the province of Bihar to serve in the railways, in the police, judiciaries and other civil departments (Ilias, Ahmed; 2003). The International Convention on Biharis held in Geneva in 1982 referred to them as non-Bangladeshi or stranded Pakistanis. The â€Å"Bihari† are such people who opposed the independence of Bangladesh, wanted to go to Pakistan but could not do so due to complication in the repatriation process. (Farzana, 2008). Stranded Pakistani: This title was given to the Urdu-speaking community after Bangladesh’s War of Independence in 1971. During the War, many members of this community sided with West Pakistan, and after losing the War they opted for repatriation to what is currently known as Pakistan rather than staying in the newly formed nation of Bangladesh, former East Pakistan. While waiting for repatriation, they were interned in camps. Many never made it to Pakistan, however, and were stranded in the camps. As a result, those who were left behind were labeled as â€Å"Stranded Pakistanis†. Human Rights: By Human rights, we mean a basic freedom and dignity that every person is entitled to. This entitlement is derived simply from the person’s status as a human being. Human rights are the basic rights and freedoms to which all humans are entitled, often held to include the right to life and liberty, freedom of thought and expression, and equality before the law. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948) gives recognition to the inherent dignity and to the equal and inalienable rights of every human. The 1951 Convention on the Status of Refugees elaborates on Article 14 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights which provides that â€Å"Everyone has the right to seek and to enjoy in other countries asylum from persecution.† The Convention was the first in a series of treaties which turned the ideals of the Declaration into legally binding obligations. The language of the Convention is clear and compelling, defining a refugee as someone with a ‘well founded fear of being persecuted for reasons of race, religion, nationality, membership of a particular social group or political opinion.† Refugee: The term ‘refugee’ is a term of art, that is, a term with a continent verifiable according to principles of general international law. In the legal sense, the Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees, 1951, whose scope of applicability was extended by the Protocol Relating to the status of Refugees, 1967, is the most important document on the definition of Refugee. According to Article 1 (a) (2) of the Convention, the term ‘refugee’ shall apply to any person who, owing to well-founded fear of being persecuted for reasons of race, religion, nationality, membership of a particular social group or political opinion, is outside the country of his nationality and is unable or owing to such fear, is unwilling to avail himself of the protection of that country, Such refugees are usually mentioned as convention refugees (Malik, Tuhin, 1998). According to the Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees 1951, and Statute of the Office of the UNHCR 1950 a person shall cease to be a refugee if; 1) He has voluntarily re-availed himself of the protection of the country of his nationality; 2) Having lost his nationality he has voluntarily re0acquired it; 3) He has acquired a new nationality, and enjoys the protection of the country of his new nationality; 4) He has voluntarily re-established himself in the country which he left or outside which he remained owing to fear of persecution. 5) He can no longer, because the circumstances in connection with which he has been recognized as a refugee have ceased to exist, continue to refuse to avail himself of the protection of the country of his nationality. The case of the Biharis comes under clause (III), for firstly many of them migrated to East Pakistan in 1947 using their option for Pakistan and secondly they were full-fledged citizens of Pakistan after 1951; But the UNHCR doesn`t recognize them as refugee. Therefore, they were deprived of the benefits and opportunities extended to the refugees by the UNHCR. As a consequence, the stranded Biharis in Bangladesh faced multiple problems. Geneva Camp: After the partition of India and Pakistan the Indian Muslims were entering into Pakistan. Some went to West Pakistan and some went to East Pakistan (Bangladesh). Then about 8 million refugees came here from India and Bihari were 2 million in number. After the liberation war of 1971 they lost their houses. On 10 March, 1971 the father of the nation Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman said addressing to nation, â€Å"Non-Bengali who live in Bangladesh are the son of this soil. Our supreme responsibility is to save the life and the property of all citizens whether he is Bengali or Non-Bengali.† The act of January1, 1972 by the government order no.1 and the act of February 28, 1972 made extreme damage to them. They become helpless and shelter less. At that time International Committee for Red Cross (ICRC) came forward and made several camps in different places and brought them in camps for their safety. With this perspective the ICRC s the biggest camp ‘New Geneva Colony’ locally known as ‘Geneva Camp’ was formed at Mohammadpur in Dhaka. Since then a new movement of Bihari’s life starts without having fundamentals rights. The house given to each family by Red Cross was only 8 feet in wide and 8 feet in length. More than 25000 people started living in just only 44000 square feet area. Human Security: According to UNDP (1994) report, there are seven specific values of human security, such as economic, food, health, environmental, personal, community, and political security. Economic security refers to an individual’s enjoyment of a basic income, either through gainful employment or from a social safety net. Food security refers to an individual’s access to food via his or her assets, employment, or income. Health security refers to an individual’s freedom from various diseases and debilitating illnesses and his or her access to health care. Environmental security refers to the integrity of land, air, and water, which make human habitation possible. Personal security refers to an individual’s freedom from crime and violence, especially women and children who are more vulnerable. Community security refers to cultural dignity and to inter-community peace within which an individual lives and grows. Finally, political security refers to protection against human rights violations. The Bihari community in Bangladesh is deprived of all the above-mentioned seven specific values. 1.7 Limitations of the Study : As this research is a part of academic course so the sample size was small. Therefore, generalization of the findings is not logical. The research is confined only to Geneva Camp due to financial and time constraints. Better information can be achieved if the research could be conducted in other camps too. Due to internal clashes in these camps, the investigators may encounter some difficulties while interviewing. Non cooperation from the respondents was another problem that the researcher had to suffer most during the period of data collection. I was not behaved cordially and cooperation was not offered from the respondents as they were tired of answering such types of interviews on several occasions. Hearing the fact that the study will solely meet up the academic purposes, they were much unwilling to respondent deliberately.

Riordan Manufacturing Accounting Systems, Part Ii

RiordanManufacturingAccounting Systems, Part II Business Systems I/BSA 500 November 19, 2012 LiseHautzinger Riordan Manufacturing Accounting Systems, Part II Comprehensive accounting systems and practices assist companies in monitoring cash flow expenses and investments as well as identify new sources of income. Riordan Manufacturing’s current accounting system lacks consistency across multiple locations and basic accounting modules. Each location has a closed system and dos not incorporate other department systems such as Marketing and Sales, Production, and Operations.Streamlining each accounting system to include the basic accounting modules and incorporating other company systems will help to ensure compliance and identify spending costs and potential capital investments. With the three operating entities (Georgia, Michigan, and California) and the joint venture in the People’s Republic of China, Riordan Manufacturing has a complex accounting setup. All information gathered from the operating entities is compiled at their corporate office in San Jose, California.Similar to that of other companies, Riordan Manufacturing must ensure that there is cohesion between the various entities by instilling basic use of accounting functions and methods. Although the accounting configuration and distribution is transparent to their customers and suppliers, the aggregation process is complex. The recommendations presented by Team A will help to build an integrated approach to their accounting and distribution setup. At a minimum, the basic components of each operating entity accounting system include the following functions: General Ledger, Accounts Payable, Accounts Receivable, and Inventory.The company has published balance sheet information that shows this level of data by comparing fiscal year ending September 30, 2010 vs. September 30, 2011. Assets for the Riordan Manufacturing include the following: information received from General Ledger, Accounts P ayable, Accounts Receivable, and Inventories. Fiscal year ending September 2011 yield total assets of $47,409,137 compared to fiscal year 2010 numbers of $34,825,498. That is an increase of $12,583,639 or approximately 26. % in 2011 compared to 2010 assets. In addition to the aforementioned accounting functions, Riordan Manufacturing uses the standard accounting methods of cash and accrual. Both methods are similar, but one of these methods will be used based on timing. In financial reporting, the cash method of accounting is used when accounting records revenue when cash from customers is received, and records expenses when they are paid in cash (Sanker, 2012). Therefore, cash basis does not recognize accounts receivable or payable.Conversely, accrual method of account include items when they are earned in addition to claiming deductions when expenses are incurred (Sanker, 2012). There are plenty of software programs available to help an organization’s accounting needs. With so many available finding the right software program can be a burden. Evaluating the needs of an organization as well as the size of the organization will help one find the correct software program. When selecting the software program it should be upgradeable for future needs as well as be able to troubleshoot and fix any errors in the program.The cost of the accounting software will also play a huge part in deciding on an accounting program. Riordan Manufacturing has multiple divisions of the company. When it comes to accounting software there are different programs used throughout Riordan Manufacturing. The San Jose plant use a different accounting software program than the Michigan and Georgia plants. This often causes a delay in financial reporting, which has caused Riordan Manufacturing investor’s confidence to decrease. The delay will also impact the outcome of future capital investments.When are there errors in accounting and financial documents this will often lead t o errors and spark costly audits (Perry, 2006). The different departments of accounting such as accounts payable, accounts receivable, and order entry need to be maintained by one system and an individual server with mirroring will suffice for the above needs and of course, a proper backup solution will be for safekeeping of this data (Perry, 2006). Microsoft produces a program that can meet the needs of Riordan Manufacturing. Solomon Great Plains program is the recommendation for Riordan Manufacturing.The functions needed by Riordan Manufacturing and pricing makes this the logical choice for accounting software. This program will allow all divisions to report back to the central point, therefore providing instance reports. One must find a compatible program that works well with the system currently in place. Riordan Manufacturing requires certain systems to create an effective and efficient accounting system. Systems such as sales, accounting, financing and human resources need to have access to the accounting system (Apollo Group, Inc. , 2012).Point of sale and cash register systems must continuously, during business hours, be connected to the accounting system. Reason being, sales are tracked and verified instantaneously. Inventory must also be considered within the accounting system to make certain that all inventory levels are monitored and replenish without user input. Monetary needs for inventory replenishing is tracked within the accounting software system. Billable hours must be tracked for cost purposes to make certain the company is working within budgetary and time constraints.The accounting systems directly connected to accounting software must also contain the general ledger accounts, accounts payable, and accounts receivable. Purchase orders for plastics orders must generate bills to customers. Collections must also have access to the company's accounting system because many times bills do not get paid, therefore collection action must be pursue d. These requirements must also be as secure as possible, behind a firewall, and virtual local area network (VLAN). Expense accounts must also be tracked within the accounting software to make certain every expense is accounted for.Finally, payroll, which includes salary and wages, payroll taxes, and deductions must be accounted for and budgeted. Integrating different modules provide a well-rounded accounting software package with the ability to keep management informed of the financial status of the company. Riordan’s current system does not include basic accounting departmental functions or modules. The company must devote funds and time to generate accurate Income Statements, Balance Sheets and the General Ledger in a consolidated effort with external auditors.As a result, a coordinated effort should be made to consolidate systems, link associated databases, and purchase appropriate accounting software. Purchase or development of software will reduce data redundancies and increase efficiency and productivity. By undertaking these measures Riordan will be able to ensure compliance, therefore cutting costs, and focus on identifying new sources of revenues and cost savings initiatives. References Apollo Group, Inc. (2012). Riordan manufacturing – intranet. Retrieved on November 4, 2012, from https://ecampus. hoenix. edu/secure/aapd/cist/vop/Business/Riordan/index. asp University of Phoenix. (2010). BSA/500 course notes. Retrieved from University of Phoenix, BSA500 – Business Systems I website. Perry, Cornell. (2006). Riordan Manufacturing Proposal. Retrieved November 18, 2012 from http://www. scribd. com/doc/48198199/Riordan-Manufacturing-Proposal Sanker, S. (2012). Accounting Methods: Cash vs. Accrual. Small Business Chronicle. Retrieved November 19, 2012, from http://smallbusiness. chron. com/accounting-methods-cash-vs-accrual-3732. html

Project Proposal (open pizza restaurant) Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Project Proposal (open pizza restaurant) - Essay Example There is considerable hospitality management experience amongst the three. The owners of Kudos Pizzeria are of the opinion that together they can overcome their competition in the Lido Beach area. Apart from the Pizza Delivery service, the nearest pizza restaurant is at least 3 miles away from our chosen site for the restaurant. And they can be left behind easily because Kudos Pizzeria’s exacting standards about using the freshest of produce and providing the best service. The owners felt the need for the establishment for a pizza joint because the area lacked one for miles and was ripe for the opportunity. Pizza is a food group all by itself and can provide good nourishment if prepared with healthy and fresh ingredients. (Dunham, 2007)The Lido Beach area is mainly populated by tourists and young families. For both groups it is important to find a source of balanced meal, but both groups are usually found surviving on bottled carbonated drinks and packaged snacks. Also important to the owners, is the concept of family meals and Pizza is one dish that everyone loves to gather around. (Kling, Cotugna, Snider & Peterson, 2009) Kudos Pizzeria will be a profitable entity within a year of going into operation. This will be measured via the profit and loss statement produced by the company. Employee satisfaction  surveys will be held bi-annually to help assess  and understand the employees attitudes, enthusiasm, and satisfaction. Customers will also be regularly asked to submit feedback which will be used to gauge their satisfaction.   In order to assess the business’ impact on the environment, life cycle analysis and environmental footprint tools will be utilized. These will help convert the results into the financial language so as to better understand the impact. If the project is not followed through, a young and lively community will be left without a viable source of healthy and tasteful food; at least till someone else grabs at the opportunity. Also,

Development of a publishable paper Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Development of a publishable paper - Essay Example Methods A qualitative research methodology is employed for the purpose of the study. The common themes in the literature on the therapeutic relationships between the nurses and clients are identified. The study was administered on a sample target group (who were screened based on their experiences of having worked in mental healthcare) of nurses who work in the psychiatric and mental health care hospitals in and around Melbourne in Victoria Australia. A preliminary mailed questionnaire was used to eliminate nurses with no prior experiences in mental healthcare. A telephonic interview was also administered on these respondents to know their willingness to take part in the sample survey. Thus, the participants for the survey consisted of 40 nurses who worked in and around Melbourne in Victoria Australia with at least two years of working in mental healthcare. The questionnaire comprised of 8 interrelated questions most of which were open ended. Results and Conclusions The results of th e study confirmed the common themes identified in the literature review. While therapeutic relationships have been identified as very much significant by the participant nurses they expressed their concern over the inadequacy of ongoing staff training, the heavy work schedule and the problems associated with maintaining professional boundaries. The respondents regarded mutual trust, empathy, confidentiality and non-judgment, feelings of reciprocity and connectedness, and acceptance and understanding as the key factors of effective therapeutic alliance whereas respect, communication and interpersonal skills, and professional knowledge were complementary. On the other hand, the major crippling factors (that prevent effective therapeutic alliance with patients) identified by the respondents consisted of mistrust, breach of confidentiality, ego, lack of communication and interpersonal skills, and lack of professional knowledge. Introduction and Background The therapeutic alliance betwee n the nurse and the client assumes utmost significance in the mental healthcare setting as the patients are greatly in need of personal counseling, guidance and care. Nurses need to have professional knowledge and skills to establish effective therapeutic relationships with the clients and they should be specially trained in displaying caring attitudes and behaviors towards the clients. The ultimate aim of the therapeutic alliance is the physical and mental well-being of the clients and as such the therapeutic relationship should be â€Å"based on trust, respect, empathy and professional intimacy, and requires appropriate use of the power inherent in the care provider’s role† (College of Nurses of Ontario, 2009, p. 3). The five components of effective nurse-client relationships have been identified as â€Å"trust, respect, professional intimacy, empathy and power† (College of Nurses of Ontario, 2009, p. 3). Nurses who work as catalytic agents of change needs to have good communication as well as interpersonal skills and a thorough knowledge regarding the dynamics of the therapeutic relationship (McQueen 2000). It is also significant that the nurses are able to build rapport and trust with the patients (McQueen 2000), show trust and commitment (Morse

Case study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 80

Case Study Example To determine the effectiveness of the partnership, customers need to be involved in the process. The research should be conducted to find out how the customers receive this new partnership. The research should look into how the changes in service delivery have been received by the customers. For example with, the partnership the airline will only be making one stop instead of two across Europe. This should also be looked at in terms of operational cost effectiveness. If the partnership is effective in terms of operational costs incurred by Qantas, then it should be sustained to help in bringing back Qantas to international profitability. The research should also include the dynamics involved in the aircraft operations industry. With a good service delivery as a result of this partnership, the Qantas Company can get back to international profit making. The most important thing is that if the customers accept the new services, they will purchase and recommend them to their friends (Gun n,

Menu Driven Interface Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Menu Driven Interface - Essay Example Menu in Graphical User Interface plays an imperative for human interaction with the computers. Menu driven interfaces facilitate the users by providing a catalogue of options for selection to navigate from one page to another. Several strategies and approaches have been developed to create or select menu for the user interface of the computer application. And one of the strategies for the development of menu-driven interface is recognized as user dialog. In user dialog strategy, the control of the computer application is transferred back and forth between the computer application and the user. The user passes a command to the computer application by selecting a menu item and the computer application respond by executing the command. Usually, the related menu items of the computer application’s user interface are categorized into the groups that can be displayed in the dialogue boxes. This approach facilitates the users to search and navigate to the pages of the computer applic ation (Senn, 2009). Importance / Popularity of Menu Driven Interface There are various reasons for the popularity of the menu driven interfaces and most of the imperative reasons is the high level of usability. The users do not require remembering the commands for using the software application efficiently; therefore, the users can effectively utilize the computer application easily. Furthermore, the menu driven graphical user interface is suitable for even the novice computer for not generating the errors, as they do not require typing the commands. The effort required for utilizing the GUI application is much reduced as compared to the command line interface, hence, it can be stated that the productivity of the users is increased. Above all, a user guide is available to facilitate and help the users to successfully employ the application and achieve the required objectives of the computer application deployment. The menu driven interfaces are becoming more popular even in modern computing age because of their appealing features. The menu driven inte rface is not only beneficial for the users or clients, however, the software development companies also find it advantageous as they do not require developing the menu again and again. The software components are developed once and reused to development cost and time. Moreover, comparatively less training is required to use the computer system; therefore, the software companies can save the cost of extensive trainings. Hence, keeping in view the facts, it has been identified that the graphical user interface having menus has made the human computer interaction simpler and easier (Norman, 1991). Strategies of Menu Driven Interface So far diverse categorizations of the menu driven interfaces have been developed, however, mainly the menu driven interface can be categorized into three (3) major strategies include: the full screen menus, the bar and pull down menus and pop-up menus. These different strategies can be used to make menu driven interfaces visually more appealing as well as u ser friendly. The full screen menus usually represented on the entire screen of the computer application and the user selects the options given on the screen. The Pop-up menus (may also be called as user dialogue) are presented in the boxes with a list of

Online Newspaper Industry in Hong Kong Research Paper

Online Newspaper Industry in Hong Kong - Research Paper Example With the advancement of internet, electronic businesses have boomed in the recent years. Online newspaper has been beneficial not only by proving news and information for the internet users, rather providing the same for the overseas readers (SooperArticles, n.d.). Electronic press has the ability to attract the readership from both the domestic and the overseas readers leading to no geographical limitation for the online newspapers. With the increased internet usage, the newspaper has also become online to attract the customers by getting involved with some popular technical ground such as internet. This reports aims to offer an insight into the online newspaper industry of Hong Kong. Research Question and Objectives The research aims is an effort to look into the online newspaper industry in Hong Kong. The following are certain research questions which are required to be investigated in this paper. 1. What is the present status of newspaper industry in Hong Kong? 2. Has online news paper emerged as an opportunity for the newspaper industry? 3. What would be an effective and successful marketing strategy for the online newspapers? To investigate the above questions, one would require setting his or her research objectives which are related and linked with the above research questions. While framing up the objectives care has been taken to frame up the objectives to be either measurable or observable and at the same time, these must be limited to the scope of the research arena. The research objectives are realistic and viable to offer effective recommendations for successful marketing strategy framework for the online newspaper industry in Hong Kong. The objective... To investigate the questions, one would require setting his or her research objectives which are related and linked with the above research questions. While framing up the objectives care has been taken to frame up the objectives to be either measurable or observable and at the same time, these must be limited to the scope of the research arena. The research objectives are realistic and viable to offer effective recommendations for successful marketing strategy framework for the online newspaper industry in Hong Kong. The objective of this research paper is to offer an effective marketing strategy for the Hong Kong online newspaper industry with an appropriate analysis of the industry, the customers and the prevailing marketing strategies. This report makes a conclusion that this project will analyse the online newspaper industry in Hong Kong and on the basis of this analysis, some recommendations for the marketing strategy will be formulated. Before conducting the research, a literature review has been done to gather some basic information regarding media industry in Hong Kong, different types of online marketing models suggested by the researchers and its advantages as well as limitations. In the later part of the literature review, some of the strategic models will also be discussed as these will be used in later part of the project while analysing the data. The newspapers can arrange some portion of the papers dedicated to these kinds of news. This would enable the companies to increase their customer base. In the recent years, the youth may be interested in some fashion related news or news from the campuses.

Leadership Issues - Managing Diversity Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words - 1

Leadership Issues - Managing Diversity - Essay Example Hence, multinational companies have increased their presence in most Asian economies such as China. These multinational companies have seen the growing potential because of the massive improvement in this country that has greatly benefitted from almost three decades of reforms (Warner 2008). Managing in the Chinese Empire The entry of these multinational companies has likewise necessitated the presence of foreign managers to help in the management as well as operations of these multinationals in the Chinese soil. Hence, it was the expatriates that have been tapped for this role. It is their job to supply the necessary skills, both managerial and technical, so that the local counterpart can cope up with the operations of the parent company. Likewise, it is hoped that the presence of the expatriate will greatly enhance the relationship between the foreign and domestic managers of the company. However, be it China or other country, it is important for the foreign counterparts assigned t o these areas to be able to recognize the requirements of the different cultures that they are being immersed into. Globalization has brought forth the need for different multinational companies to maintain a global workforce which requires the foreign nationals that are assigned into these countries to be aware of the cultural differences that is a very important requirement for these foreign managers to be able to work with teams that comprise different cultures (Ibrahim 2010). Key leadership Issues in China A Mass of Followers, A Lack of Leaders In China, the different culture can be really challenging to the expatriate that will be assigned to the area. Chow & Liu (2008) states that most Chinese employees are not that keen on having additional duties or being involved with different or increasing responsibilities. Most of them are just too convenient in the boss-subordinate agreement. It is therefore important for the expatriates to understand and be able to work around such str ong cultural make up. This presents a strong challenge since it is important for the multinational companies to be able to develop their employees and have a fully functional global workforce that will jive with the way the parent company does its business. Employees are very important for a company’s success thus it is very important for the expatriates to be able to rally them behind the corporate strategies necessary for the success of their venture. True, this trait enables the local unit of a multinational company to have sufficient workers that are following the company’s policies and regulations. This trait somehow ensures them there will be followers whenever they lead. However, this relative aloofness as stated by Chow and Liu (2008) can also rob them of possible potential managers that may be tapped to lead the locals. Political Forces Warner (2008) has highlighted the importance the changes have had in China for propelling them into the current stature that they are in right now in the global economy. China has indeed benefitted much from opening their doors to the benefits and opportunities of global commerce. This has been instrumental in providing the necessary boost that is unavailable in a strictly closed economy that has been characteristic of a communist country. However, it is important to remember that the Chinese economy is not yet a full free market economy. Despite having been opened to businesses, the government retains substantial

Reducing College Tuition Essay Example for Free

Reducing College Tuition Essay Abstact There is a need to reduce the cost of college tuition in America. The rising costs threaten the ability and desire of students to attend college, but there are ways for both parents and students to make going to college more affordable. The Need to Reduce College Tuition With the cost of education on the rise, students are asking that time aged question, will they be able to attend college? The answer is yes, and without taking on the burden of overpriced tuition fees and loans. Attending community college has become a trend across the country and offer continuing education with little to no direct cost to students. Dual enrollment options, where a student can take a class that counts towards both high school and college credits are becoming increasingly popular with a large proportion of these students enrolling through two-year colleges and universities. Economic downturns are also believed to attract many students to community colleges, acting as a more affordable route to higher education at a time when money is tight and jobs are scarce. In 2007, 6.3 million students enrolled in community colleges in the United States, representing 34 percent of all undergraduates, and 46 percent of all undergraduates at public institutions. (25 Ways to Reduce the Cost of College Tuition, 2006) Community college enrollments have grown considerably over the last half-century, reflecting a general increase in demand for postsecondary degrees seen in this period. However, little attention is given to the fact that community colleges have quietly gained not only in enrollments, but in public institution market share as well (25 Ways to Reduce the Cost of College Tuition, 2006). Colleges and universities are not in a position to give you a discount on the cost of tuition. What they can do, however, is offer you gift aid in the form of scholarships, grants and work-study programs to reduce your out-of-pocket cost of attendance. Even if you’ve been awarded some gift aid from the school in your financial aid award letter, there may be additional aid available that the school can use to attract desirable candidates (Negotiating Your College Tuition, 2012). Once you’ve been accepted to a colleges or university, look at their published tuition rates and your financial situation. While public colleges will generally have a lower tuition, keep in mind that private, non-profit colleges are more dependent on tuition money, so they may be especially willing to make a deal with you – receiving less tuition money from a student is better than receiving no money at all, and you should always ask about other monies that may be available through programs and scholarships. If you do not ask, the school will not divulge this information willingly (Negotiating Your College Tuition, 2012). President Obama offered a plan Friday to reduce the costs of higher education by increasing the amount of federal grant money available for low-interest loans and tying it directly to colleges’ ability to reduce tuition (WP Politics, 2012). In an impassioned speech before 4,000 students at the University of Michigan, Obama delivered an election-year pitch to the type of youthful audience that buoyed his 2008 campaign, saying his administration was putting colleges â€Å"on notice† that they must rein in soaring prices. (WP Politics, 2012). â€Å"You can’t assume you’ll just jack up tuition every single year,† Obama said to cheers at Glick Field House (Obama, 2012), the school’s indoor football facility. â€Å"If you can’t stop tuition going up, your funding from taxpayers will go down. We should push colleges to do better; we should hold them accountable if they don’t† (Obama, 2012). With all the talk during the run for president, it will be great to see if all the plans for college tuition being lowered are true. We have thousands of students graduating from colleges across the country, and if they cannot find jobs that will pay them enough to pay back student loans, they will find themselves drowning in debt, and this will not be good for the student or the economy. These people will not be able to establish credit, buy a home or even purchase a vehicle. They will fall further in debt as the interest rate on the loan accumulates. This is why tuition fees need to be reduced, so even if a student does not come straight out of school with a high paying job, they will be able to make affordable payments on their loans without being overwhelmed. Tuition fees are scary. References 25 Ways to Reduce the Cost of College Tuition. (2006, September). Retrieved from Center for College affordability: http://centerforcollegeaffordability.org/uploads/25Ways_to_Reduce_the_Cost_of_College.pdf Negotiating Your College Tuition. (2012). Retrieved from Campus Explorer: http://www.campusexplorer.com/college-advice-tips/422D4AF3/Negotiating-Your-College-Tuition/ WP Politics. (2012, November 02). Retrieved from The Washington Post: http://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/obama-outlines-incentive-plan-to-reduce-college-tuition-costs/2012/01/27/gIQAc92fVQ_story.html

Communication Between Agencies Essay Example for Free

Communication Between Agencies Essay In order to be successful having great communication is the key to that success. Our country has endowed many tragedies with many of them due to the poor communication. Many lives had been lost because of poor communication or the first responder’s not being trained properly for a situation as this. Communication problems became the focal point of our nation’s emergency management improvement ever since September 11. Every day in cities and towns across the Nation, emergency response personnel respond to incidents of varying scope and magnitude. Their ability to communicate in real time is critical to establishing command and control at the scene of an emergency, to maintaining event situational awareness, and to operating overall within a broad range of incidents (National emergency communications, 2008). Communicating messages to the general public is a critical yet underdeveloped aspect of effective emergency management. Such messages fall under three basic categories: risk, communication, and warning and crisis communications. Risk communication involves alerting and educating the public to the risks they face and how they can best prepare for and mitigate these risks in order to reduce the impacts of future disaster events. Warning involves delivering notice of an actual impending threat with sufficient time to allow recipient individuals and communities to take shelter, evacuate, or take other mitigated action in advance of a disaster event. Crisis communication involves the provision of timely, useful, and accurate information to the public during the response and recovery phases of a disaster event (Bullock, 2009). The emergency management community as a whole has vast experience in practicing risk and warning communications. Preparedness programs have been an active part of emergency management in this country for decades, and public education programs conducted by the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA), the American Red Cross, the Salvation Army, local fire departments, and other public and private sector agencies have disseminated millions of brochures and checklists describing the risks of future disaster events and the steps that individuals and communities can take to reduce and prepare for them (Bullock, 2009). In our text Bullock States, â€Å"The National Commission on terrorist attacks on the United States, also known as the 9/11 Commission, found that inadequate communications contributed greatly to hindering the ability of responding agencies to respond to the events that unfolded, and led directly to the high number of police and fire department employees who were killed when the towers collapsed† (Bullock, 2009). From this you can conclude that information was not passed along fast enough so as a result many people lost their lives because of this. There were also language barriers many of the different agencies did not use the same â€Å"lingo† and because of this confusion information was not passed between them correctly.

Financial Statements Analysis In Making Investment Decisions Finance Essay

Financial Statements Analysis In Making Investment Decisions Finance Essay During the financial crisis in 2008, the world witnessed the bankruptcies of leading firms such as Lehman Brothers or Washington Mutual. These collapses caused the losses of many shareholders and stock investors and raised the importance of financial analysis in investment. This project looks at the necessity of financial statement analysis in investment decision making with an emphasis on how to use it to reveal potential risks. Introduction One of the most important long-term decisions for any business is investment with the aim of making gains in the future. Investment decisions are concerned with the use of funds including buying, holding or selling and each decision could be vital to a firm. A careless decision may result in a long-term loss or even worse, bankruptcy. Therefore, an in-depth understanding and analysis is necessary for a high quality investment decision process. This is also even more critical to investors who invest in stock of company or shareholders. Financial statement analysis is critical in making effective stock investment decisions. By study the balance sheet, income statement, cash flow statement and statement of owners equity separately and combined, an analyst might have a good sense of a companys overall financial picture; therefore, the investment decisions are likely to be reasonable and profitable. I. Understanding of financial statements analysis In order to understand the analysis of financial statements, it is necessary to define financial statements. According to Fabozzi (2003), financial statements are summaries of the operating, financing and investment activities of a business. These reports provide information to both investors and creditors in making credit, investment, and other business decisions. In other words, financial statements might be used as a tool to predict a companys future earnings. There are four basic financial statements including: the balance sheet, the income statement, the statement of cash flows and the statement of shareholders equity. Firstly, the balance sheet is a summary of the assets, liabilities and equity of a business at a particular time. Assets include the resources of an enterprise that are used to generate profits. Therefore, if a company owns assets, the company can expect them to produce cash inflows in the future. Take for example, cars of a taxi company will be used in order to serve customers and gain income to the company. Liabilities are obligations of the business, or in other words, the commitments to creditors in the form of future cash outflows. Another factor is Equity, which reflects ownership. This means equity represents the part of a firms value that is not owed to creditors and therefore is left over for the owners. Thus, equity is the difference between assets and liabilities. Another part of financial statements is income statement, which is a summary of the revenues and expenses of a business over a period of time. Therefore, it shows both the results of the firms operating and financing decisions during that time, and people can also call this as the profit and loss statement. Thirdly, statement of cash flows is a summary over a period of time of a firms cash flows. This statement lists separately its operating cash flows, investing cash flows, and financing cash flows. The last main part of financial statements is the statement of shareholders equity. This provides additional information about equity including the amounts and changes in equity accounts; thus, it is considered as a link between the balance sheet and the income statement. Apart from the four main parts, the financial statements include notes in order to give additional information to readers. The first notes summaries the companys accounting policies such as methods of inventory accounting, methods of depreciation and foreign currency translation. Depending on each company, then there may be additional notes providing, for example, information on mergers or acquisitions. Financial statement analysis is a process that examines past and current financial date for the purpose of evaluating performance and estimating future risks and potential. II. What influences the making of Investment decision? In order to understand how financial report analysis affects investment decisions, it is important to understand the main contributing factors of making an investment decision. According to Cahill (2003), the investment decision making bases on assessing the sectors prospects, assessing the companys prospects and evaluating the value of company. A sectors prospects, which are dependent upon the supply/ demand, pricing and cost trends within the industry, provide information to analyze a companys prospects in more details. Meanwhile, the analysis of the prospects for the company is based on four drivers including management and strategy, performance and returns, financial positions and outlook for earnings. The combination of these factors determines the value put on a companys share. After analyzing the numbers and the four factors, it is important to evaluate those numbers with some approaches such as price/earning. As it can be seen clearly, financial statements are essential source of information in analyzing companys prospects and in evaluating companys value. Therefore, it is safe to assume that financial statements analysis is important in the making of investment decision. III. The influences of financial statements analysis on investment decision 1. Financial ratio analysis and its effect Financial ratio is one of the most important tools of financial analysis. In financial ratio analysis, the relevant information that will be processed is primarily from the financial statement data. A ratio is a mathematical relation between two quantities, in this case is from financial statements. Generally, by using financial ratios, investors can evaluate five aspects of operating performance and financial conditions including return on investment, liquidity, profitability, activity and financial leverage. With return on investment ratios, analysts compare measures of benefits, such as net income or earning before interest and taxes, with measures of investment in order to evaluate how well the firm uses its sources in its operations. Thus, analysts could consider increasing their investment into the firm if its ratio of net income to total assets is larger than other firms in the same sector. Moreover, not only compare current figures, investors might compare a firms current ratio with its ratio in the past so that they could have a view of how well the firm operate in the recent period of time. On the other hand, investors can assess the companys liquidity, which is the ability to meet the short-term obligations using current assets, by several ways including current ratio, quick ratio or net working capital to sales ratio. Take for example, a ratio of current assets to current liabilities will provide information about the comparison between assets that can be readily turn in to cas h and obligations that are due in the near future. In other words, by calculating this ratio, people might know the ability of a company to satisfy obligation due in the near future; therefore, they could have an valuable information about the safety of investing in that company. As it can be seen clearly, the higher a firms liquidity is, the more secure the investment is. Moreover, professional investors even extend their analysis skill by adding profitability ratios, which help them gauge how well a firm is managing its expenses. With detailed information in financial statements, investor can select and use different profitability ratio in each case. For example, suppose an analyst wants to evaluate how well production facilities are managed, it is reasonable to focus on the comparison between gross profit, which is a measure of income that is direct result of production management, and sales. This ratio shows the portion of each dollar of sales that remains after deducting production expenses; hence, the analyst might evaluate the firms ability to manage expenses. In general, it would be unwise to invest in a company that cannot control its expenditures appropriately (Akintoye, 2009). Apart from above ratios, activity ratios can be used to evaluate the benefits produced by specific assets; thus, they would be useful in specific circumstances. For instance, a ratio of cost of goods sold to inventory provide information about how quickly a firm has used inventory to generate the goods and services that are sold. Another kind of ratios is financial leverage ratio, which is used to assess how much financial risk the firm has taken on. These ratios are essential to evaluate the safety of investment decision to that company. Although financial ratio analysis help analysts in evaluating a firms operations, risk and potential returns so that they can decide to invest in the firms securities or not, this analysis cannot tell the whole story and must be used with care due to some limitations such as interpretation of the ratios or accounting data. 2. Earning analysis In order to give out a right investment decision, investors have to forecast the market value of firms securities, or in other words, forecast a companys cash flows in the future. However, this is difficult and as an alternative, investors examine the historical and current relation between stock price and some fundamental factors. In many cases, the factor is used to estimate the value of securities is earnings. Earnings are varying in different circumstances; therefore, it is common to use different approaches depend on real case. For example, if an investor is evaluating the performance of a companys operations, the focus is likely on the operating earnings of the company the earnings before interest and taxes. Generally, earning analysis is usually referred to the amount of earning per share of stock. In this case, the EPS (earnings per share), which shows how much on each share is earned by the firm in a given accounting period, is widely used. A firm with high EPS seems to be a profitable firm and is worth to invest in; thus, EPS can play a significant role in investment decision making. However, earnings can be adjusted by the firm itself and in fact, there are pressures that force the firm to adjust its earnings such as meeting analyst forecast or meeting shareholders expectation. In particular, earnings can be manipulated using a number of devices including the selection of inventory method and the selection of depreciation method. The pressure to report constantly increasing earnings may also result in wrong earning report. For example, Leslie Fay showed increasing earnings in 1990 and 1991, even though its business was not that excellent (Fabozzi, 2003). Therefore, similar to using financial ratios analysis, earning analysis should be done with most careful attitudes. 3. Cash Flow analysis According to Fabozzi (2003), cash flow play an important role in valuation and help analyst calculate the current value of a company base on the present value of its expected future cash flow. Moreover, understanding cash flow allows an investor to assess the ability of a firm to maintain current dividends and its current capital expenditure policy without relying on external financing. Currently, a firm reports its cash flows on the statement of cash flows using either the direct method, which is reporting all cash inflows and outflows, or the indirect method, which is adjustment the net income with depreciation and other noncash expenses. By looking at the relations among cash flow from operations, cash flow from investing activities and cash flow from financing activities, an analyst could have a overview of the firms activities. For example, a young fast growing company is likely to have a negative cash flows from operation and a positive cash flows from financing activities because the company rely on external financing. Examination of the sources of cash flows, especially over time, gives analysts a general idea of the companys operations. For instance, PG, which is a mature firm, has a consistent cash flow. Moreover, cash flow information may help the analyst identify companies that may encounter financial difficulties. A clear example of this case is W.T. Gr ant company during 1966-1974 with no definite clues of bankruptcy that were showed on profitability ratio, turnover ratio and liquidity ratios. However, a study of cash flows from operations clearly revealed that company operations were causing an increasing drain on cash (Fabozzi, 2003). For above reasons, cash flow analysis is an essential part of making investment decision. Conclusion Financial analysis is the basis for investment and financing decisions and the basic data for this analysis is the financial statement data. This data can be used to analyze the relationships between different elements of a firm in order to provide an overview as well as an in-depth view of companys operation and financial condition. Moreover, by looking at the calculated financial ratios, in the connection with economic data, investor can make judgments about past and future financial performance and conditions. Besides, earnings analysis and cash flow analysis may provide even more detailed information about the firm, and also help investor to see potential risk. Therefore, it is safe to assume that financial statement analysis play an irreplaceable role in making investment decisions.

Marriage in Vanity Fair Essays -- Vanity Fair Essays

Marriage in Vanity Fair  Ã‚   Many of the characters in "Vanity Fair" are married from the start of the novel, or are betrothed during the novel. The reasons behind the marriage vary from character to character - even within relationships. While some may have love in mind, it is the temptation of money and social status that encourages others to walk down the aisle. The perspectives on marriage also depend on the position in the relationship. Mothers and fathers sometimes have more economic ideals while their children are in love, or even have no regard for each another at all. The protagonist of the novel, Becky Sharp, laments not having a mother to whom she could leave the arduous task of finding a fiancà ©. Little is said of the relationship between Becky's parents. Her father was an artist and her mother a French opera dancer. It is unlikely that, as she was orphaned at a young age, Becky was greatly affected in any way by her parents' relationship. Perhaps indirectly, she felt that because she was an orphan, her impact on society had to be all the more memorable and successful. Before so much as being introduced to a portrait of her friend Amelia's brother, Becky is reasoning with herself, "If Mr. Joseph Sedley is rich and unmarried, why should I not marry him?" Although Becky sees an opportunity to join the Sedley family, initially of some standing in society, Jos's behaviour is not exemplary for a young gentlemen. Before his drunken behaviour at Vauxhall, he allows Becky to eat a hot chili; an example of how he does not see the pursuit of matrimony as a worthwhile occupation; not a pastime that concerns him, although he appreciates the attention that Miss Sharp pays him. Sir Pitt Crawley has a similar lack of appre... ...s desire for advancement in society and wealth attempts to start that relationship, it is Becky's similar motivations that are responsible for her relationship with Lord Steyne. She considers him to simply be another step up the ladder of society. However, he is inadvertently a clue to what else Becky expects from a relationship. when Rawdon attacks Steyne on his arrival back home, Becky admires Rawdon's physical strength. Again, this is a more material aspect of a relationship. The ideals behind marriage differ, often between generations. While parents can see economic and social gain, a situation such as with George and Amelia causes problems when the parents' meddling results in the children falling in love. Becky Sharp's use for marriage seems only to be self-advancement. When a relationship ends, her regrets are based on what she has lost, rather than who.   

Prayer In Public Schools :: Religion in Public Schools

Should a Catholic school be reimbursed by the state for school supplies? Should there be time set aside in school for kids to pray? These are some of the many questions the U.S. Supreme Court asks themselves when they are confronted with cases involving religion in school. Although there are some sound supporting arguments for prayer in school, the opposing arguments more than justify the non-religious atmosphere of public school. Supporting arguments for In School Prayer have little validity. For instance one argument is that the framers of the constitution were religious, so they didn’t mean to prohibit all government sponsored prayer or acknowledgment of â€Å"GOD.† This is assuming one way just to be in favor of the In School Prayer idea. Pro-Prayer activists also believe that it is VERY important for the nation’s children to have religious values instilled in them. I strongly disagree with this statement solely because they are assuming that someone without a religion has lower or no values as compared to a religious person. Valid arguments on this side of the issue are rare, but they do exist. One example is that in public polls, seventy-eight percent of the nations thinks prayer in public schools is a good idea. This logical at first, but the truth is many polls convey the notion that voluntary prayer before, after, and during school is forbidden. Another argument addresses the fact that religion is already everywhere anyway. It is on our currency, our leaders are sworn into office with reference to â€Å"GOD,† and our flag salute also contains religious statements. These are good points to address, however, I believe they are wrong as well. †Two wrongs don’t make a right.† Opposing arguments are a lot more convincing than the supporting points. First of all, students have the right to conduct religious practices on school property, so there is no need to set aside specific time in the curriculum

Deception Point Page 4

Although the job was difficult and required long hours, the position was a badge of honor for her, a way to assert her independence from her father. Senator Sexton had offered many times to support Rachel if she would quit the post, but Rachel had no intention of becoming financially beholden to a man like Sedgewick Sexton. Her mother was testimony to what could happen when a man like that held too many cards. The sound of Rachel's pager echoed in the marble hall. Again? She didn't even bother to check the message. Wondering what the hell was going on, she boarded the elevator, skipped her own floor, and went straight to the top. 4 To call the NRO director a plain man was in itself an overstatement. NRO Director William Pickering was diminutive, with pale skin, a forgettable face, a bald head, and hazel eyes, which despite having gazed upon the country's deepest secrets, appeared as two shallow pools. Nonetheless, to those who worked under him, Pickering towered. His subdued personality and unadorned philosophies were legendary at the NRO. The man's quiet diligence, combined with his wardrobe of plain black suits, had earned him the nickname the â€Å"Quaker.† A brilliant strategist and the model of efficiency, the Quaker ran his world with an unrivaled clarity. His mantra: â€Å"Find the truth. Act on it.† When Rachel arrived in the director's office, he was on the phone. Rachel was always surprised by the sight of him: William Pickering looked nothing like a man who wielded enough power to wake the President at any hour. Pickering hung up and waved her in. â€Å"Agent Sexton, have a seat.† His voice had a lucid rawness to it. â€Å"Thank you, sir.† Rachel sat. Despite most people's discomfort around William Pickering's blunt demeanor, Rachel had always liked the man. He was the exact antithesis of her father†¦ physically unimposing, anything but charismatic, and he did his duty with a selfless patriotism, shunning the spotlight her father loved so much. Pickering removed his glasses and gazed at her. â€Å"Agent Sexton, the President called me about a half hour ago. In direct reference to you.† Rachel shifted in her seat. Pickering was known for getting to the point. One hell of an opening, she thought. â€Å"Not a problem with one of my gists, I hope.† â€Å"On the contrary. He says the White House is impressed with your work.† Rachel exhaled silently. â€Å"So what did he want?† â€Å"A meeting with you. In person. Immediately.† Rachel's unease sharpened. â€Å"A personal meeting? About what?† â€Å"Damn good question. He wouldn't tell me.† Now Rachel was lost. Keeping information from the director of the NRO was like keeping Vatican secrets from the Pope. The standing joke in the intelligence community was that if William Pickering didn't know about it, it hadn't happened. Pickering stood, pacing now in front of his window. â€Å"He asked that I contact you immediately and send you to meet with him.† â€Å"Right now?† â€Å"He sent transportation. It's waiting outside.† Rachel frowned. The President's request was unnerving on its own account, but it was the look of concern on Pickering's face that really worried her. â€Å"You obviously have reservations.† â€Å"I sure as hell do!† Pickering showed a rare flash of emotion. â€Å"The President's timing seems almost callow in its transparency. You are the daughter of the man who is currently challenging him in the polls, and he demands a private meeting with you? I find this highly inappropriate. Your father no doubt would agree.† Rachel knew Pickering was right – not that she gave a damn what her father thought. â€Å"Do you not trust the President's motives?† â€Å"My oath is to provide intel support to the current White House administration, not pass judgment on their politics.† Typical Pickering response, Rachel realized. William Pickering made no bones about his view of politicians as transitory figureheads who passed fleetingly across a chessboard whose real players were men like Pickering himself – seasoned â€Å"lifers† who had been around long enough to understand the game with some perspective. Two full terms in the White House, Pickering often said, was not nearly enough to comprehend the true complexities of the global political landscape. â€Å"Maybe it's an innocent request,† Rachel offered, hoping the President was above trying some sort of cheap campaign stunt. â€Å"Maybe he needs a reduction of some sensitive data.† â€Å"Not to sound belittling, Agent Sexton, but the White House has access to plenty of qualified gisting personnel if they need it. If it's an internal White House job, the President should know better than to contact you. And if not, then he sure as hell should know better than to request an NRO asset and then refuse to tell me what he wants it for.† Pickering always referred to his employees as assets, a manner of speech many found disconcertingly cold. â€Å"Your father is gaining political momentum,† Pickering said. â€Å"A lot of it. The White House has got to be getting nervous.† He sighed. â€Å"Politics is a desperate business. When the President calls a secret meeting with his challenger's daughter, I'd guess there's more on his mind than intelligence gists.† Rachel felt a distant chill. Pickering's hunches had an uncanny tendency to be dead on. â€Å"And you're afraid the White House feels desperate enough to introduce me into the political mix?† Pickering paused a moment. â€Å"You are not exactly silent about your feelings for your father, and I have little doubt the President's campaign staff is aware of the rift. It occurs to me that they may want to use you against him somehow.† â€Å"Where do I sign up?† Rachel said, only half-joking. Pickering looked unimpressed. He gave her a stern stare. â€Å"A word of warning, Agent Sexton. If you feel that your personal issues with your father are going to cloud your judgment in dealing with the President, I strongly advise that you decline the President's request for a meeting.† â€Å"Decline?† Rachel gave a nervous chuckle. â€Å"I obviously can't refuse the President.† â€Å"No,† the director said, â€Å"but I can.† His words rumbled a bit, reminding Rachel of the other reason Pickering was called the â€Å"Quaker.† Despite being a small man, William Pickering could cause political earthquakes if he were crossed. â€Å"My concerns here are simple,† Pickering said. â€Å"I have a responsibility to protect the people who work for me, and I don't appreciate even the vague implication that one of them might be used as a pawn in a political game.† â€Å"What do you recommend I do?† Pickering sighed. â€Å"My suggestion is that you meet with him. Commit to nothing. Once the President tells you what the hell is on his mind, call me. If I think he's playing political hardball with you, trust me, I'll pull you out so fast the man won't know what hit him.† â€Å"Thank you, sir.† Rachel sensed a protective aura from the director that she often longed for in her own father. â€Å"And you said the President already sent a car?† â€Å"Not exactly.† Pickering frowned and pointed out the window. Uncertain, Rachel went over and gazed out in the direction of Pickering's outstretched finger. A snub-nosed MH-60G PaveHawk helicopter sat idling on the lawn. One of the fastest choppers ever made, this PaveHawk was emblazoned with the White House insignia. The pilot stood nearby, checking his watch. Rachel turned to Pickering in disbelief. â€Å"The White House sent a PaveHawk to take me fifteen miles into D.C.?† â€Å"Apparently the President hopes you are either impressed or intimidated.† Pickering eyed her. â€Å"I suggest you are neither.†

Culture and Prime Time Television Essay

â€Å"Cultural studies is a critical approach that focuses attention on the role of the media as a principal means by which ideology is introduced and reinforced within contemporary culture. One of the central tenets of cultural studies is that the media promote the dominant ideology of a culture† (Silverblatt, 98). Primetime television, programming on television that airs between the hours of 7-10 p. m. central standard time, is one of the outlets that culture uses to deliver values; therefore, some of the shows that air on primetime television are a true reflection of dominant ideology/culture. Cultural studies and media literacy theories help to explain how this is evident in the messages delivered through many of the shows that air on primetime television. A few reality shows that reflect the dominant American culture/ideology are Keeping up with the Kardashians, America’s Next Top Model, and Run’s House. Keeping up with the Kardashians is an American reality television show that airs on primetime television. It documents the lives of the Kardashians and the Jenners. The Kardashians include Kim, Kourtney, Khloe, and Robert. They are the children of the late Robert Kardashian. The Jenners include Bruce, Kylie, Kendall, and Kris. Bruce and Kris Jenner are the parents of this blended family. Keeping up with the Kardashians became a major hit from inception. The show offers its audience the opportunity to learn more about the Kardashians. The show reveals secrets about the family that the audience wouldn’t otherwise know. For instance, it allowed the audience to learn details about scandals that took place in some of the Kardashians’ lives before they became famous. In addition, the show offers its audience the opportunity to share the family’s rise to fame. While Kim Kardashian is the most popular person on the show, many of her siblings are beginning to share the spotlight as a result of being on the show. â€Å"The imposition of an ideology within a culture is referred to as hegemony. Critical theorists like Stuart Hall argue that the worldviews presented through the media do not merely reflect or reinforce culture but in fact shape thinking by promoting the dominant ideology of a culture†(Silverblatt, 99). While keeping up with the Kardashians was more than likely created as a means of making money for both the producers and the family, the show probably has more of an effect on society than it believes that is does. On the current season of the show, Kourtney Kardashian is trying to get pregnant with her second child by Scott Disick, her first son’s father. Because Kourtney is famous and she and Scott are not married, the audience may begin to think that it is okay to have kids out of wedlock. This type of behavior seems to be becoming a dominant ideology. While this type of behavior occurs in our society, it was never accepted as freely as it is now. On another note, the shows does offer the conquer worldview where â€Å"striving for success is often portrayed as a test of personal resolve, requiring discipline, sacrifice, and commitment† (Silverblatt, 111). On Keeping up with the Kardashians, Kris, Kim, Kourtney, and Khloe work very hard to be successful. They are very disciplined, committed, and driven for success. They sacrifice having relationships and time with family to pursue their dreams. This is not a dominant ideology in our culture. While hard work, commitment, and discipline equal success in American culture, not too many people will sacrifice being away from their families, especially their husbands for success. Keeping up with the Kardashians can also be viewed as a contest worldview. This means that the show suggests through the characters’ actions that â€Å"success is a sport, in which people compete against one another† (Silverblatt, 111). On the most recent episode of Keeping up with the Kardashians, Kim becomes very competitive to a point where she bets Kourtney $10,000 to play her in a game of chess. This bet was raised after Kim had already lost the first game of chess and had to become Kourtney’s maid for a day. As stated on the show, Kim’s drive to be the best, even in here career, makes her a very competitive person. On top of being very competitive, she is also a soar loser. She uses her gains as a way to measure her success against her sisters’ success. The contest worldview reminds me of the American phrase, â€Å"keeping up with the Jones. † Some people live to be like someone else and to have just as much or more than the next person. Keeping up with the Kardashians, as the name implies seems to think that society wants to be on their level in terms of success and fame. In a society and culture were possessions and wealth tend to define you, there is no wonder why the show is a huge hit. Unfortunately this is a part of the American culture; however, it is not a dominant ideology. America’s Next Top Model is another popular reality television show that airs on primetime television. The show was the first show of its kind that offered teenagers and young women the opportunity to compete on national television to become America’s Next Top Model. The show was a huge success from inception and quickly became one of the highest rated shows on network television that appealed to a wide audience of females ranging from age 18-34. By inviting America into the lives of beautiful models, the modeling industry, and beauty and fashion, America’s Next Top Model entered the market as a force to be reckoned with. While America’s Next Top Model emerged as a reflection of American culture, in many ways it also began to shape American culture. It became America’s new trendsetter, beauty expert, modeling mentor, and entertainment. Each season of America’s Next Top Model offers its audience 9-13 episodes with 10-14 contestants competing for the title of America’s Next Top Model. A contestant is eliminated on each episode of the show, which steepens the competition as the season progresses. To provide the audience with a more realistic feel for the industry, America’s Next Top Model offers drastic makeovers, personal life experiences of the contestants, gruesome challenges, traveling ventures, and extravagant living arrangements. Beauty is a huge part of the show as implied by the title of the show, but talent along with ambition plays a major role as well. According to Silverblatt, â€Å"the personal values of the media communicator are interwoven with membership in a number of subcultures based upon gender, ethical/racial identity, stage of life, and class which operate according to separate value systems. In order to identify a value system operating in a media production, it is of paramount importance to define its culture† (Silverblatt, 109). It is evident that America’s Next Top Model shares an American culture. Not only does the producer, Tyra Banks, share this same American culture, but she also shares other subcultures with her audience, which includes gender, stages of life, and race. Analyzing characters is a strategy that Silverblatt addresses as a way to identify the value system operating within media presentations. â€Å"Heroes and Heroines embody those qualities that society considers admirable. Heroes generally prevail in media entertainment programming because they embody the values that are esteemed within the culture† (Silverblatt, 109). Both Tyra Banks and the contestants of America’s Next Top Model signify beauty and talent, which are qualities that most women would love to have. These girls signify what our culture defines as model material and thus a reflection of a dominant ideology. They are tall, slim, have flawless skin, and are beautiful. These are qualities that some of the audience may either possess or admire in the contestants. â€Å"Successful media figures are in control, free to determine their own fates† (Silverblatt, 111). The contestants on the show are determined to be unique, to stand out from the crowd, and to win the title. They know that their fate on the show and for their life thereafter depends on their determination to win. These are roles that are shared by most Americans. American culture suggests that fate is in the hands of the beholder; therefore, this aspect of the show is a reflection of a dominant ideology. This implies that whatever happens in life is the sole responsibility of the individual and that success comes with being confident and in control. Run’s House is yet another American reality television show that airs on primetime television. The show introduces America to Reverend Run, also known as Run DMC, as a minister, his family, and his family life. Run’s House focuses on Reverend Run as provides parenting to his family of five children which range in age from age 8 to 21 with his loving wife, Justine. Viewers get a see Reverend Run in action as this hands-on, very involved, hip-hop gone minister dad negotiates everyday parenting challenges from the birds and the bees to helping with homework. Run’s House is a perfect example of American culture as we know it. This family of seven that consists of five children and a mother and father in the home prays together, eats together, and participate in family activities and trips together. While the children of the show still get in trouble for misbehaving or getting bad grades, they respect their parents. They seem to honor the values that they are taught and work hard to keep their parents proud. On one particular episode of the show, the audience learned that Vanessa and Angela were still virgins at age 18 and 21. In this same episode, the girls mention that they are going to wait until they are married before they engage in sexual activities. This is a lesson that is taught to many, but carried out by fewer. While this seems to be far from the norm in current day society, his aspect of the show could shape culture and have a huge impact on the younger audience who admire Angela and Vanessa. Run’s House seems to fit the Physical Ideal worldview which means that the family is admired because of the role that they play in this society. Reverend Run and his family seem to still be grounded with â€Å"old fashion† values in a society and culture where that seems to be fading, temptations are ever increasing, and infidelity is accepted. Some families no longer eat at the table together; nevertheless, pray together. In addition, some children are being raised in single family homes where the mother works most of the time. Living in a home where there are two parents that have vested interest in their children’s lives and that seem to be happy makes this family a physical ideal that most people would admire and would love to have. â€Å"Cultural studies and media literacy theories help to identify dominant ideology in media which includes primetime television† (Silverblatt, 98). The three reality television shows listed above are either deeply embedded in American culture or either shape it. For the most part, Keeping up with the Kardashians and America’s Next Top Model for the most part are both a true reflection of the contemporary dominant ideology. Run’s House on the other hand is s reflection of the modern ideology. The role that Reverend Run’s family plays in this society is more similar to Leave it to Beaver which aired in the 70’s and was very appropriate for that time. While the show had high ratings, it is not the norm compared to other reality television shows that air on primetime television.

Teaching English

Teaching Readers of English â€Å"A book of this kind is long overdue. . . . It is a giant contribution to the ? eld. With its emphasis on a socioliterate approach to reading and literacy, it nicely captures the prevailing view of academic literacy instruction. Its extremely skillful and well-developed balancing act between theory and practice allows it to appeal to a wide variety of readers. Pre- and in-service teachers, in particular, will bene? t immensely. † Alan Hirvela, The Ohio State University â€Å"A compendium like this that addresses reading issues at a variety of levels and in a variety of ways is most welcome. . . Congratulations on excellent work, a fabulous partnership, and on moving us all forward in our thinking about reading issues! † Vaidehi Ramanathan, University of California, Davis A comprehensive manual for pre- and in-service ESL and EFL educators, this frontline text balances insights from current reading theory and research with highly practica l, ? eld-tested strategies for teaching and assessing L2 reading in secondary and post-secondary contexts. John S. Hedgcock is Professor of Applied Linguistics at the Monterey Institute of International Studies. Dana R.Ferris is Associate Professor in the University Writing Program at the University of California, Davis. Teaching Readers of English Students, Texts, and Contexts John S. Hedgcock Monterey Institute of International Studies Dana R. Ferris University of California, Davis First published 2009 by Routledge 270 Madison Ave, New York, NY 10016 Simultaneously published in the UK by Routledge 2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business This edition published in the Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2009.To purchase your own copy of this or any of Taylor & Francis or Routledge’s collection of thousands of eBooks please go to www. eBookstore. tandf. co. uk.  © 2009 Routledge, Taylor and Franci s All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilized in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identi? ation and explanation without intent to infringe. Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data A catalog record has been requested for this book British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library ISBN 0-203-88026-9 Master e-book ISBN ISBN 10: 0–415–99964–2 (hbk) ISBN 10: 0–8058–6347–8 (pbk) ISBN 10: 0–203–88026–9 (ebk) ISBN 13: 978–0–415–99964–9 (hbk) ISBN 13: 978–0–8058â₠¬â€œ6347–5 (pbk) ISBN 13: 978–0–203–88026–5 (ebk) Brief Contents Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiv Credits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xix 1 Fundamentals of L1 and L2 Literacy: Reading and Learning to Read . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2 L2 Reading: Focus on the Reader . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 3 L2 Reading: Focus on the Text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .78 4 Syllabus Design and Instructional Planning for the L2 Reading Course . . . .115 5 Designing an Intensive Reading Lesson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160 6 Reading for Quantity: The Benefits and Challenges of Extensive Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205 7 Using Literary Texts in L2 Reading Instruction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .242 8 Vocabulary Learning and Teaching in L2 Reading Instruction . . . . . . . . . . . .283 9 Classroom L2 Reading Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .417 Author Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .423 Subject Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 427 Contents Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiv Credits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xix 1 Fundamentals of L1 and L2 Literacy: Reading and Learning to Read . . . . . . . .1 The Nature of Literacy and Literacies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3 Working with Writing Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 Reading Processes: Fundamentals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13 Describing and De? ning Reading Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 Bottom-Up Views of Reading and Reading Development . . . . . . . . . .17 Top-Down Views of Reading and Reading Development . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Interactive and Integrated Views of Reading and Reading Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .27 Understanding L2 Reading Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 The Linguistic Threshold Hypothesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .33 Components of L2 Reading: Skills and Subskills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .35 L2 Reading Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 Chapter Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 Further Reading and Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 Re? ection and Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 Application Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 2 L2 Reading: Focus on the Reader . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 Who Are L2 Readers? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .50 International (Visa) Students . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 EFL Students . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .52 Immigrant Students . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .52 Generation 1. 5 Students . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 viii Contents Implications of Multiple Student Audiences for Reading Instruction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .55 L2 Reading in Non-academic Settings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .56 What a Reader Knows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 In? uences of Family and Society . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .57 School In? uences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .58 Types of Reader Schemata . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 What the L2 Reader Knows: Final Thoughts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 Individual Differences among L2 Readers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 Motivation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .62 Learning Styles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .64 Learner Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .69 Focus on the Reader: Implications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 Needs Assessment and Course Goals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 Text Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 Classroom Instruction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .72 Chapter Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .73 Further Reading and Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74 Re? ection and Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 Application Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 3 L2 Reading: Focus on the Text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .78 What Is a Text? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 Orthography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 Words. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .81 Morphosyntactic Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .84 Text Cohesion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 Typography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 Text Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90 Text Information: Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .91 Focus on the Text: Implications for Text Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .92 Selecting and Analyzing Texts for Intensive Reading Instruction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .92 Text Selection Issues: Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97 Focus on the Text: Building Bottom-Up Skills and Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . .98 Bottom-Up Skills: Approaches and Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .98 Summary: Textual Elements and Bottom-Up Instruction. . . . . . . . . .103 Chapter Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 Further Reading and Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .107 Re? ection and Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .107 Application Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .108 Appendix 3. 1: Second Chances—If Only We Could Start Again . . . . . . . .112 Appendix 3. 2: Sample Mini-lesson on Morphology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .113 Contents 4 ix Syllabus Design and Instructional Planning for the L2 Reading Course . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115 Needs Assessment: Understanding Learner Needs and Institutional Expectations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 Demographic Pro? le . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119 L2 Pro? ciency and Literate Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122 Student Interests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .122 Student Preferences, Strategies, and Styles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .123 Designing and Administering NA Instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .124 Establishing Goals and Objectives for Teaching and Learning . . . . . . . . . .125 Developing an L2 Literacy Syllabus: Design Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .130 Crafting the Course Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131 Constructing the Course Outline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133 Selecting and Working with Textbooks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .135 Planning L2 Literacy Lessons: Principles and Precepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .139 Specifying Lesson Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .139 Organizing a Daily Less on Plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .140 Lesson Planning Mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141 Chapter Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146 Further Reading and Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .147 Re? ection and Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .148 Application Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .149 Appendix 4. 1: Sample Needs Assessment Questionnaire for a Reading Course . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151 Appendix 4. 2: Sample EAP Reading Course Syllabus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155 Appendix 4. 3: Textbook Evaluation Checklist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158 5 Designing an Intensive Reading Lesson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160 Background: Intensive Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160 Stages of Intensive Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .162 Before Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163 During Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171 After Reading. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184 Putting It All Together: Designing an Intensive Reading Lesson . . . . . . . . . 190 Suggestions for Intensive Reading Lessons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .190 Chapter Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191 Further Reading and Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .192 Re? ection and Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .193 Application Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .194 Appendix 5. 1: The Rewards of Living a Solitary Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .196 Appendix 5. 2: Sample Text-Surveying Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201 x 6 Contents Reading for Quantity: The Benefits and Challenges ofExtensive Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .205 Extensive Reading: De? nitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206 Perspectives on Extensive Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .208 Bene? ts of Extensive Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .210 Extensive Reading Improves Comprehension Skills . . . . . . . . . . . . . .210 Extensive Reading Develops Automaticity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .211 Extensive Reading Builds Background Knowledge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212 Extensive Reading Builds Vocabulary and Grammar Knowledge . . . .213 Extensive Reading Improves Production Skills (Speaking and Especially Writing) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .215 Extensive Reading Promotes Student Con? dence and Motivation . . . 216 Summary: The Case for Extensive Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217 (Perceived) Problems and Challenges with Extensive Reading . . . . . . . . . .217 Time and Pre-Existing Curricular Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .218 Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .218 Student Resistance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219 Curricular Models for Extensive Reading in L2 Settings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220 Overall Objective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .220 Extensive Reading in a Language Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220 Extensive Reading in a Foreign-Language Context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221 Extensive Reading in Non-Academic Class Settings . . . . . . . . . . . . . .222 Extensive Reading in Academic Settings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222 Practical Matters: Implementation of Extensive Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . .225 Getting Students on Board . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .226 Providing Access to Reading Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227 Helping Students Find and Select Appropriate Materials . . . . . . . . . .230 Designing Classroom Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .232 Developing Accountability and Evaluation Mechanisms . . . . . . . . . .234 Chapter Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235 Further Reading and Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .236 Re? ection and Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .237 Application Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237 7 Using Literary Texts in L2 Reading Instruction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .242 Contexts for L2 Literature Teaching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243 Bene? ts of Literature for L2 Readers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245 Cultural Knowledge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247 Rich Language Exposure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .249 Input for Language Acquisition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .250 Enjoyable and Motivating Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251 Improved Student Con? dence in L2 Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251 Personal Growth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .252 Contents xi Stimulating Writing Topics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .252 Critical Thinking Skills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253 Bene? ts: Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .254 Using Literature with L2 Readers: Challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254 Teacher Discomfort . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .255 Student Resistance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256 Time Constraints. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .257 Text Dif? culty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .258 Possible Drawbacks: Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259 Teaching Literature in the L2 Reading Course . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259 How Much Literature? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259 What Kinds of Texts?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260 Where Do Literary Texts Fit in Intensive and Extensive Reading Approaches? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261 Literature in an Extensive Reading Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264 Speci? c Considerations for Teaching Literature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264 Literary Metalanguage: To Teach or Not to Teach? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .265 Teaching Fiction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .265 Teaching Poetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268 Teaching Drama . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .270 Chapter Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272 Further Reading and Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .274 Re? ection and Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .274 Application Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .275 Appendix 7. 1: The Story of An Hour (Kate Chopin [1894]) . . . . . . . . . . . .280 Appendix 7. 2: The Road Not Taken (Robert Frost [1916]) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282 8 Vocabulary Learning and Teaching in L2 Reading Instruction . . . . . . . . . . . .283Components of Word Knowledge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .284 The Role of Lexical Knowledge in Developing L2 Readin g Skills and Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .291 Interactions between Vocabulary Knowledge and Reading . . . . . . . . . 291 Incidental Vocabulary Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .292 Direct Vocabulary Instruction: Explicit Interventions in Teaching Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295 Lexical Enhancement and L2 Reading: Challenges andTools . . . . . . . . . . . 296 Vocabulary Size and Reading Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297 Word Frequency Lists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .300 Direct Vocabulary Teaching and L2 Reading Instruction: Practices and Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302 Spend Time on Words . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304 Teach Effective Inferenc ing Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306 Teach Effective Dictionary Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .306 Consider Working with Graded Readers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308 xii Contents Ask Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .309 Match De? nitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310 Practice Semantic Mapping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310 Encourage Use of Word Cards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311 Assign Vocabulary Notebooks or Logs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313 Chapter Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313 Further Reading and Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .314 Re? ection and Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .315 Application Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .316 9 Classroom L2 Reading Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323 The Purposes of L2 Reading Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326 Principles and Concepts of L2 Reading Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .329 Reliability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .329 Validity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .330 Authenticity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .331 Washback . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .333 Product and Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334 A Framework for Designing Classroom L2 Reading Assessments. . . . . . .335 Reading Assessment Variables: Standards, Readers, and Texts . . . . . . . . . .337 Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .337 Reader Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .338 Text Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .339 Task and Item Development in L2 Reading Assessment: Principles and Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340 Controlled Response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341 Constructed Response. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .353 Maximizing Controlled and Constructed Response Approaches in L2 Reading Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .360 Alternative L2 Literacy As sessment Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .362 Reading Journals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .363 Literacy Portfolios . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364 Self-Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367 Summary: Toward a Coherent Literacy Assessment Plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . .369 Further Reading and Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .370 Re? ection and Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .371 Application Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .372 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .375 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .417 Author Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .423 Subject Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 427 Preface This book presents approaches to the teaching of second language (L2) readers in the context of current theoretical perspectives on L2 literacy processes, practices, and readers. Teaching Readers of English is designed as a comprehensive teacherpreparation book, as well as a resource for in-service teachers and L2 literacy researchers.The volume focuses on preparing instructors who work with L2 and multilingual readers at the secondary, post-secondary, and adult levels. Teaching Readers of English likewise examines vocabulary development, both as a tool for facilitating effective reading and as a language-learning goal in itself. We have attempted to craft the book to appeal to several distinct audiences: Tea cher educators and graduate students in TESOL preparation programs; In-service ESL and EFL instructors currently engaged in teaching reading and related literacy skills;Pre-service teachers of secondary English and their instructors; In-service teachers of secondary English; Researchers involved in describing L2 literacy and investigating L2 reading pedagogy. Teaching Readers of English addresses the needs of the ? rst four groups by providing overviews of research related to L2 reading, as well as numerous opportunities to re? ect on, develop, and practice the teaching skills needed for effective ESL and EFL literacy instruction. We hope that researchers in the ? eld will also bene? t from our syntheses and analyses of the literature on various topics in L2 literacy education.Preview and post-reading review questions in Preface xv each chapter are designed to stimulate readers’ thinking about the material presented. Application Activities at the end of each chapter provide h ands–on practice for pre- and in-service teachers, as well as resources for teacher educators. Because of this book’s dual emphasis on theory and practice in L2 literacy instruction, it would serve as an appropriate primary or supplementary text in courses focusing on L2 reading theory, as well as practical courses that address literacy instruction. As a discipline, L2 reading is still viewed by some as an emergent ? eld.Consequently, few resources have been produced to help pre- and in-service L2 educators to become experts in a discipline that is becoming recognized as a profession in its own right. Therefore, one of our primary goals in Teaching Readers of English is to furnish readers with a synthesis of theory and practice in a rapidly evolving community of scholars and professionals. We have consistently and intentionally focused on providing apprentice teachers with practice activities, such as reader background surveys, text analyses, and instructional planning tasks that can be used to develop the complex skills entailed in teaching L2 reading.Although all topics of discussion are ? rmly grounded in reviews of relevant research, a feature that we feel distinguishes this volume from others is its array of hands-on, practical examples, materials, and tasks. By synthesizing theory and research in accessible terms, we have endeavored to craft chapter content and exercises in ways that enable readers to appreciate the relevance of the ? eld’s knowledge base to their current and future classroom settings and student readers. Overview of the Book We have sequenced the book’s chapters to move from general themes to speci? c pedagogical concerns.Situated in a broad literacy framework, Chapter 1 presents an overview of reading theory and pedagogical models that have in? uenced and shaped approaches to L2 literacy instruction. It also presents a comparative discussion of writing systems, culminating with a discussion of the dynamic in teractions of skills and strategies that comprise L2 reading. Most importantly, Chapter 1 introduces an argument that we pursue throughout the volume; that is, whereas certain literacy processes transcend linguistic and cultural boundaries, unique characteristics and challenges set L2 reading apart from L1 reading.We embrace the view that teaching learners to read successfully in an L2 such as English requires thought, analysis, and attention. Chapters 2 and 3 focus respectively on the two most important elements of the interactive process known as reading: readers and texts. In Chapter 2, we discuss and de? ne more precisely what characterizes an L2 reader, acknowledging the growing complexity of the term and the diversity of the student audience. Chapter 2 examines numerous background variables that in? uence literacy development, including the unique characteristics of individual readers.Chapter 3 provides a de? nition and in-depth analysis of the structural properties of text, x vi Preface with a speci? c focus on challenges faced by readers in their encounters with (L1 and) L2 texts and with English texts in particular. Chapter 3 concludes with a practical discussion of the linguistic components of texts, suggesting that teachers in some contexts may wish to present direct lessons targeting these features. In all of these chapters, we aim to present a perspective on L2 reading instruction that is ? mly grounded in the precept that literacies are socially constructed. Based on the socioliterate premises outlined especially in Chapters 1 and 2, Chapter 4 addresses fundamental concerns related to the teaching of any L2 literacy course: needs assessment, syllabus design, materials selection, and lesson planning. Chapter 5 (intensive reading) and Chapter 6 (extensive reading) present detailed examinations of the two major curricular approaches to teaching L2 reading. The remaining chapters then focus on speci? c topics of persistent nterest to L2 literacy educa tors: the use of literature in L2 reading instruction (Chapter 7), vocabulary learning and teaching (Chapter 8), and approaches to reading assessment (Chapter 9). Although the organization of individual chapters varies according to topic, all contain the following components: Questions for Re? ection. These pre-reading questions invite readers to consider their prior experiences as students and readers and to anticipate how these insights might inform their professional beliefs and teaching practices; Further Reading and Resources.A concise list at the end of each chapter provides a quick overview of the print and online sources cited, as well as other outlets of relevant information; Figures and Tables. These textual illustrations provide sample authentic activities, lesson plans, sample texts, and so on, which teachers can use and adapt in their own instructional practice; Re? ection and Review. These follow-up questions ask readers to examine and evaluate the theoretical informat ion and practical suggestions introduced in the main text; Application Activities. Application Activities follow each Re? ction and Review section, presenting a range of hands-on practical exercises. Tasks include collecting data from novice readers, text analysis, evaluating real-world reading materials, developing lesson plans, designing classroom activities, and executing and evaluating classroom tasks and assessments. Several chapters also include Appendices that contain sample texts and instructional materials. As readers, writers, researchers, teachers, and teacher educators, we ? nd the ? eld of L2 literacy development (which entails both reading and writing) to offer many challenges and rewards.It was our classroom experience working with Preface xvii multilingual readers and with L2 teachers that initially ignited our interest in compiling a book that would help teachers develop both professional knowledge and con? dence as teachers of reading. We hope that this book will p rovide its readers with accurate information, meaningful insights, and practical ideas for classroom teaching. It is also our hope that Teaching Readers of English will convey our enthusiasm and passion for this rapidly evolving and engaging ? eld of intellectual inquiry and professional practice.John’s Acknowledgments Thanks are due to the Monterey Institute for my Fall semester 2007 sabbatical leave, which I dedicated to exploring the L2 reading literature anew and to writing early draft material. I owe special thanks to the M. A. students in my Spring 2008 ED 562 (Teaching Reading) course, who diligently read the draft version of the book, responded thoughtfully and substantially to the material, and reminded me how enjoyable it can be to look at teaching in novel ways. Their hard work, enthusiasm for reading, and passion for teaching were infectious and energizing.As always, I am also indebted to the Library staff at the Monterey Institute, who not only supply me continua lly with volumes of books and articles, but who also cheerfully grant me more special privileges than I deserve. Like Dana, I would like to credit an early source of inspiration for me, Professor Stephen Krashen, whose teaching and research drew me to literacy studies when I was a graduate student. Finally, I offer my profound thanks to Simon Hsu for his perpetual reassurance, moral support, and good cheer through the ups and downs of the writing process.Dana’s Acknowledgments I am grateful to my graduate students and former colleagues at California State University, Sacramento who have helped me to develop and pilot materials used in this book. In particular, I would like to thank the CSUS M. A. students in my Spring 2008 English 215A (ESL Reading/Vocabulary) course, who patiently worked with the draft version of this book, responded enthusiastically, and gave great suggestions. As always, I am thankful for the opportunity to have my thinking and practice informed and challe nged by these individuals.I am also grateful for the sabbatical leave I received from my former institution, CSUS, for the Spring 2007 semester, which allowed me extended time for this project. Working on this book has also made me again appreciative of the contributions of two of my graduate school professors—Stephen Krashen and the late David Eskey of the University of Southern California—not only to the ? eld of L2 reading research but also to the formation of my own knowledge base and philosophies on the subject. Both were excellent teachers and mentors, and I am indebted to them for their work, their example, and the ways they encouraged me as a student. viii Preface On a personal level, I would like to extend my love and gratitude to my husband, Randy Ferris, my daughters, Laura and Melissa Ferris, and my faithful yellow Labrador retriever, Winnie the Pooch, who was a great companion and thoughtful sounding board during my sabbatical! Joint Acknowledgments Our wo rk on this project would have been much less rewarding and enjoyable without the gentle guidance and persistent encouragement of our outstanding editor, Naomi Silverman. Her expertise and unfailingly insightful advice assisted us in innumerable ways as our ideas evolved and as the collaborative writing process unfolded.Despite her sometimes crushing workload, Naomi managed to help us out whenever we needed her input. We offer our profound thanks for her con? dence in us and for her many contributions to this book’s evolution. In addition, we deeply appreciate the incisive and exceptionally useful feedback on earlier versions provided by Barbara Birch, Alan Hirvela, and Vaidehi Ramanathan. Finally, we are grateful for the diligent work of Meeta Pendharkar and Alfred Symons at Routledge, and of Richard Willis, who saw the project through its ? nal stages of development.John Hedgcock Dana Ferris Credits Figure 1. 3 is derived and adapted from a drawing in Bernhardt (1991b), Read ing development in a second language: Theoretical, empirical, and classroom perspectives (p. 15), originally published by Ablex. Figure 1. 4 is adapted from Birch (2007), English L2 reading: Getting to the bottom (2nd ed. , p. 3). Figure 4. 4 is adapted from Ferris and Hedgcock (2005), Teaching ESL composition: Purpose, process, and practice (2nd ed. , p. 100). Figures 1. 4 and 4. 4 are used with permission from Taylor and Francis. Figure 1. originally appeared in Bernhardt (2005), â€Å"Progress and procrastination in second language reading† (Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 25, pp. 133–150). Figure 8. 1 was adapted from a similar ? gure in Nation (2001), Learning vocabulary in another language. We thank Cambridge University Press for its policy concerning reproduction and adaptation of these resources. The â€Å"Second Chances—If Only We Could Start Again† selection by Brahm in Appendix 3. 1 originally appeared in the Sacramento Bee in 2001; the t ext appears here with permission. Sarton’s (1974) essay, â€Å"The Rewards of Living a Solitary Life† (Appendix 5. ), ? rst appeared in the New York Times, as did the Greenhouse (2003) essay, â€Å"Going for the look—but risking discrimination† (Appendix 5. 2); both selections are used with permission. Figure 9. 2 is based on and adapted from Urquhart and Weir (1998), Reading in a second language: Process, product, and practice (Addison Wesley Longman). xx Credits Figure 9. 11 is a slightly altered rubric from Groeber (2007), Designing and using rubrics for reading and language arts, K-6 (p. 23). This ? gure appears with permission from Corwin Press. Chapter 1 Fundamentals of L1 nd L2 Literacy Reading and Learning to Read Questions for Re? ection Do you have any recollection of learning to read at home or at school in your primary language or in a second/foreign language? If so, what were those processes like? How were they similar or different across lan guages? How is text-based communication similar to and distinct from speechbased communication? How is learning to read and write distinct from acquiring speech and listening skills? Why? What are some of the principal challenges that you associate with reading certain kinds of text?What are the main obstacles that novice readers face in learning to read? Why do you think it is important for novice ESL and EFL teachers to become acquainted with the principles and practices of reading instruction (in contrast to other skills, such as speaking, listening, writing, or grammar)? The high premium that many people place on literacy skills, including those necessary for performing well in school and in the workplace, emerges largely from the degree to which educated adults depend on text-based and digital resources for learning and communication.When educated people think about 2 Teaching Readers of English how and why literacy is important, few question the fundamental notion that reading is a crucial building block, if not the chief cornerstone, of success at school, at work, and in society (Feiler, 2007; Gee, 2008; McCarty, 2005). In primary education around the globe, one of the ? rst things children do at school is participate in literacy lessons and â€Å"learn to read. † Of course, â€Å"the developmental transformations that mark the way to reading expertise begin in infancy, not in school† (Wolf, 2007, p. 223).In many parts of the world, primary-level teachers receive specialized education and training in teaching children to read, sometimes in two or more languages. As children advance toward adolescence, they may undergo sustained literacy instruction designed to enhance their reading comprehension, ? uency, and ef? ciency. Formal â€Å"reading† courses taper off as children progress toward and beyond secondary school—except, perhaps, for foreign or second language instruction. Many language teachers assume that teaching and lea rning a foreign or second language (L2)1 depends on reading skills.In fact, they may devote considerable time and effort to promoting L2 reading skills among their students, often under the assumption that learners already have a developed system of literate knowledge and skill in their primary language(s) (L1s). In contrast, teachers in disciplines such as science and mathematics, social studies, and the arts may need to assume that their pupils or students already know â€Å"how to read. † Such educators may not provide much, if any, explicit instruction in the mechanics of processing texts.Similarly, many teachers of writing at both the secondary and tertiary levels often assume that students know â€Å"how to read† (or at least that students have been taught to read). Paradoxically, while formal education, professional activities, and use of the Web depend on reading ef? cacy, many educators ? nd themselves under-equipped to help their students develop their readin g skills when students need instructional intervention. In other words, we may not recognize the complexity of reading because, as pro? ient readers, we often take reading ability for granted, assuming that reading processes are automatic. It is easy to overlook the complexity of reading processes, as many of us do not have to think much about how we read. After all, you are able to read and understand the words on this page because you have somehow â€Å"learned to read† English and have successfully automatized your ability to decode alphabetic symbols and interpret meaning from text. Precisely how you achieved this level of skill, however, is still not fully understood (Smith, 2004; Wolf, 2007).Our experiences as students, language teachers, and teacher educators have led us to a profound appreciation of the complexity of the reading process and for the fact that, for many novice readers—whether working in L1 or L2—reading processes are far from automatic. We have also come to recognize the sometimes overwhelming challenges of teaching reading to language learners. Reading, learning to read, and teaching reading are neither easy nor effortless. In this chapter, we consider fundamental aspects of the reading process that make it a complex social and cognitive operation involving readers, writers, texts,Fundamentals of L1 and L2 Literacy 3 contexts, and purposes. We will introduce contemporary principles of literacy and literacy development to familiarize readers with de? nitions of key constructs in the interrelated ? elds of literacy studies, L1 and L2 reading research, and pedagogy. Our aim is to help readers develop a working knowledge of key issues, insights, and controversies in L2 literacy education by presenting an overview of key theories, models, and metaphors. Our chief focus is on the literacy development of multilingual learners in secondary and postsecondary educational settings. Naturally, we refer to research on L1 literac y development among children, which has richly informed agendas for L2 literacy research and instruction. In the ? rst part of this chapter, we consider contemporary views of literacy as a socio-psychological construct that frames reading development and processes among L1 and L2 learners. By comparing research and theory associated with prevailing processing metaphors, we explore instructional issues of particular relevance to the teaching of L2 reading. These issues include the niqueness of L2 reading processes, interactions between L1 and L2 literacy, and the importance of strategies-based instruction in promoting L2 literacy. The Nature of Literacy and Literacies Before examining the mechanics of reading, we must situate reading processes and instruction with respect to the sociocultural and educational contexts where reading skills are valued. As Urquhart and Weir (1998) noted, â€Å"the teacher of reading is in the business of attempting to improve literacy† (p. 1). Alt hough reading skill is central to any de? ition of literacy, L2 educators should understand that literacy entails not only cognitive abilities (Bernhardt, 1991a, 1991b), but also knowledge of sociocultural structures and ideologies (Cope & Kalantzis, 2000; Cummins, Brown, & Sayers, 2007; Gee, 1991, 2003; Goldenberg, Rueda, & August, 2006; Lewis, Enciso, & Moje, 2007; Perez, 2004b, 2004d; Robinson, McKenna, & Wedman, 2007). Literacy, after all, is â€Å"a part of the highest human impulse to think and rethink experience in place† (Brandt, 1990, p. 1).We can refer to reading and writing as literate processes, and we frequently use the term literacy as a countable noun when describing skills, knowledge, practices, and beliefs allied with speci? c disciplines and discourse communities (e. g. , academic literacy, workplace literacy, computer literacy, ? nancial literacy, and so forth). Across disciplines, wrote Barton (2007), â€Å"the term literacy has become a code word for mor e complex views of what is involved in reading and writing† (p. 5). A literate person can therefore become â€Å"competent and knowledgeable in specialized areas† (Barton, 2007, p. 9). Literacies are multiple, overlapping, and diverse: â€Å"People have different literacies which they make use of, associate with different domains of life. These differences are increased across different cultures or historical periods† (Barton, 2007, p. 37). Eagleton and Dobler (2007), for example, insisted that â€Å"current de? nitions of literacy must include digital texts such as those found on the Web† (p. 28). 4 Teaching Readers of English Contemporary conceptions of literacy do not characterize literacy merely as a cluster of isolated processing skills.Scribner and Cole (1981) framed literacy as a system of socially organized literacy practices. This view led to an â€Å"emerging theory of literacy-as-social-practice† (Reder & Davila, 2005, p. 172), now widely known as the New Literacy Studies (NLS) (Barton & Hamilton, 1998; Street, 1984, 1995). As a socioculturally organized system, literacy consists of much more than an individual’s ability to work with print-based media. Reading and writing may be the most visible or tangible processes in literacy development, but literacy practices go beyond reading and writing alone (Eagleton & Dobler, 2007; Kern, 2000; Purcell-Gates, 2007).Literacy practices refer to â€Å"common patterns in using reading and writing in a particular situation. People bring their cultural knowledge to an activity† (Barton, 2007, p. 36). In an NLS view, literacy is more than a skill or ability that people â€Å"acquire†Ã¢â‚¬â€it is something that people do in the course of everyday life. We can refer to what people do with their knowledge of literate practices as literacy events. Heath (1982) de? ned a literacy event as â€Å"any occasion in which a piece of writing is integral to the nature of the participants’ interactions and their interpretative processes† (p. 3). Barton’s (2007) synthesis of the complementary relationship between literacy practices and literacy events illustrates the inherently social nature of literacy: Together events and practices are the two basic units of analysis of the social activity of literacy. Literate events are the particular activities where literacy has a role; they may be regular repeated activities. Literacy practices are the general cultural ways of utilizing literacy which people draw upon in a literacy event. [I]n the example . . . f a man discussing the contents of the local paper with a friend, the two of them sitting in the living room planning a letter to the newspaper is a literacy event. In deciding who does what, where and when it is done, along with the associated ways of talking and the ways of writing, the two participants make use of their literacy practices. (p. 37) Literacy is further understood in terms of the individual’s relationship to literate communities and institutions (e. g. , fellow readers and writers, teachers, employers, school, online networks, and so on).Scholars such as Freire (1968), Gee (1988, 1996), and Street (1984) have proposed that literacy can privilege some people while excluding others, as societies and discourse communities use literacy to enforce social controls and maintain hierarchies. The NLS approach assumes (1) that context is fundamental to any understanding of literacy and its development (Barton, 2007; Barton & Tusting, 2005; Collins & Blot, 2003) and (2) that literate and oral practices overlap and interact (Finnegan, 1988; Goody, 1987; Olson & Torrance, 1991; Stubbs, 1980; Tarone & Bigelow, 2005).Because it is grounded in social context, NLS research offers implications for how we might view reading processes, reading development, and reading Fundamentals of L1 and L2 Literacy 5 pedagogy. As already suggested, one insight that depa rts from conventional notions is that literacy consists of much more than reading and writing (Czerniewska, 1992; Kern, 2000; Purcell-Gates, 2007; Purcell-Gates, Jacobson, & Degener, 2008; Smith, 2004, 2007). Literacy practices and literacy events are not limited to libraries and schools. Literacy development is a process that begins early in childhood, long before children attend school, and involves many different skills and experiences† (Lesaux, Koda, Siegel, & Shanahan, 2006a, p. 77). Although L2 reading teachers may be con? ned to the classroom in their encounters with learners, literacy education should not be limited to promoting school-based literacies alone (Freire & Macedo, 1987; Gee, 2000; Kalantzis & Cope, 2000). After all, literacy is â€Å"rooted in people’s intimate everyday experiences with text† (Reder & Davila, 2005, p. 173). These daily experiences can range from the most mundane (e. g. scribbling a grocery list, dashing off a quick e-mail mess age, checking MapQuest for driving directions) to those with high-stakes consequences (e. g. , composing a college admissions essay or crafting a letter of resignation). Classrooms, of course, are unquestionably key sites for cultivating school and non-school literacies (Perez, 2004a). Students must develop literate skills that will enable them to succeed in school, although some of these skills may never be part of the curriculum (Alvermann, Hinchman, Moore, Phelps, & Waff, 2006; Bloome, Carter, Christina, Otto, & Shuart-Faris, 2005; Gee, 1996, 2005; Kutz, 1997; Perez, 2004c).In other words, surviving and thriving in school require much more than developing literacy in the traditional sense: Learners must also develop new behaviors and attitudes while cultivating social alliances. Novice readers must learn â€Å"a set of complex role relationships, general cognitive techniques, ways of approaching problems, different genres of talk and interaction, and an intricate set of values c oncerned with communication, interaction, and society as a whole† (Wertsch, 1985, pp. 35–36).Literate practices and literacy events of all sorts involve interaction and social activity around written texts, which are the products of a kind of technology— writing itself (Bazerman, 2007; Grabe & Kaplan, 1996; Olson, 1994; Olson & Cole, 2006; Ong, 1982; Wolf, 2007). 3 As such, writing is a value-laden cultural form, â€Å"a social product whose shape and in? uence depend upon prior political and ideological factors† (Gee, 1996, p. 58). Because â€Å"the immediate social context determines the use and nature of texts† (Reder & Davila, 2005, p. 75), texts and their uses are inherently tied to power at some level: â€Å"[L]iteracy can be seen as doing the work of discourse and power/knowledge† (Morgan & Ramanathan, 2005, p. 151). In this view, literacy and literacy development are never neutral, as literate activity involves learners, teachers, and many others (Gee, 2002). Moreover, â€Å"all literacy events carry ideological meanings† (Reder & Davila, 2005, p. 178), although we may not be aware of these meanings in the learning or teaching process. Nonetheless, L2 literacy educators can bene? from cultivating a critical awareness of how â€Å"literacy practices provide the textual means by which dominant values and identities (e. g. , avid consumers, obedient workers, patriotic citizens) are normalized and, at times, resisted† (Morgan & Ramanathan, 2005, pp. 152–153). 4 6 Teaching Readers of English Such critical perspectives, informed by NLS research and theory, are valuable for reading teachers: They remind us that literacy practices and literacy events pervade culture and everyday life. Literacy emerges as a kind of knowledge and skill base, as well as a socialization process (John-Steiner & Meehan, 2000).Describing early literacy development, Smith (1988) argued that children become successful reader s â€Å"only if they are admitted into a community of written language users,† which he called the â€Å"literacy club† (p. 2). Before they can read or write a single word, children become members of a literacy club similar to the community of oral language users into which infants are inducted at birth. â€Å"The procedures are the same, and the bene? ts are the same—admission to the club rapidly results in becoming like established members in spoken language, in literacy, and in many other ways as well† (Smith, 1988, p. ). Unique conditions affect adolescents and adults acquiring L2 literacy, yet the principle that literacy is socially embedded unquestionably applies to developing literacy in an additional language. Kern (2000) de? ned L2 literacy as â€Å"the use of socially-, historically-, and culturally-situated practices of creating and interpreting meaning through texts† (p. 16). Being literate in another language requires a critical knowle dge of how textual conventions and contexts of use shape one another. And because literacy is purpose-sensitive, it is dynamic â€Å"across and within discourse communities and cultures.It draws on a wide range of cognitive abilities, on knowledge of written and spoken language, on knowledge of genres, and on cultural knowledge† (Kern, 2000, p. 16). These dynamic aspects of literacy must include digital literacy (sometimes called cyberliteracy or electronic literacy), which we associate with â€Å"technologymediated textual, communicative, and informational practices† (Ingraham, Levy, McKenna, & Roberts, 2007, p. 162). Literacy and reading in the 21st century must be characterized in terms of â€Å"an ecology that includes broad-based access to many different media† (Mackey, 2007, p. 13).These media include television and ? lm, as well as digital audio and video ? les that can be stored and retrieved at will on a computer or other device in a range of formats (E agleton & Dobler, 2007; Gee, 2003; Hawisher, 2004; Kapitzke & Bruce, 2006; Olson & Cole, 2006). Laptop computers, MP3 players, iPods, handheld devices, and mobile telephones make print and non-print sources available almost anywhere. The social milieu in much of the world is saturated with digital media. In fact, â€Å"very few Western young people come to print texts without a vast background of exposure to texts in many other media† (Mackey, 2007, p. 3). We must expect L1 and L2 students in many settings to know how to navigate websites and electronic texts, view artwork and photographs, listen to audio recordings, and watch live action, video, and animations, all with impressive facility (McKenna, Labbo, Kieffer, & Reinking, 2006; McKenna, Labbo, Reinking, & Zucker, 2008; Thorne & Black, 2007; Valmont, 2002). Moore (2001) estimated that more than 80% of the data available in the world is â€Å"born digital, not on paper, ? che, charts, ? lms, or maps† (p. 28). That proportion has unquestionably risen above 80%, and the availability of computers inFundamentals of L1 and L2 Literacy 7 school settings has also increased. Parsad and Jones (2005) reported that, as of 2003, nearly 100% of U. S. schools had Internet access, 93% of classrooms were wired, and the mean ratio of learners to wired computers was about 4. 4 to 1. Access to wired computers in schools with high minority enrollments and in economically disadvantaged neighborhoods unfortunately drops below these averages (DeBell & Chapman, 2003; Parsad & Jones, 2005; Wells & Lewis, 2005); only about 16% of the world’s population currently use the Internet (de Argaez, 2006).Nonetheless, as a consequence of increasingly widespread Internet access and the proliferation of laptop and desktop computers with CD-ROM and DVD capabilities, many of today’s students â€Å"can instantaneously access more information delivered in multiple formats than at any other time in the history of educa tion† (Valmont, 2002, p. 92). For this growing learner population, â€Å"literacy in a polysymbolic environment† includes expertise in decoding and encoding print-based media, as well as â€Å"interpreting and constructing in visual and other symbolic worlds† (Valmont, 2002, p. 2). More speci? cally, digital literacy entails not only producing written and oral messages, but also generating and interpreting sounds, images, graphics, videos, animations, and movements (Cummins et al. , 2007; Eagleton & Dobler, 2007). In the remainder of this chapter, we explore L1 and L2 reading and reading development from a sociocognitive perspective. We believe that L2 reading teachers can best serve their students by viewing the learning and teaching of reading as much more than skill-oriented practice (Lee & Smagorinsky, 2000; Meyer & Manning, 2007).We must engage students â€Å"in real literacy events,† which Kern (2000) explicitly distinguished from â€Å"just rehears ing reading and writing skills. † To develop L2 literacy, students must â€Å"learn not only about vocabulary and grammar but also about discourse and the processes by which it is created† (p. 17). To synthesize salient insights from research and theory in NLS and related ? elds, we propose the following global principles, which we can apply to our work as literacy educators: Literacy is a cognitive and a social activity, which we can describe in terms of literacy practices, which are played out during literacy events.Literacies are multiple and associated with different participants, purposes, social relations, settings, institutions, and â€Å"domains of life† that support literate knowledge (Barton, 2007, p. 37). Literacy events reference socially constructed symbol systems that facilitate communication, create meaning, and represent the world. These systems require users to understand, adopt, and even reshape conventions (genres, discourse structure, grammar, vocabulary, spelling). As symbolic systems that draw on writing and speech, literacies enable us to represent and cognize about ourselves, others, and our world (Kern, 2000). Teaching Readers of English Literacy requires problem-solving. Reading and writing â€Å"involve ? guring out relationships† among words, larger units of meaning, and â€Å"between texts and real or imagined worlds† (Kern, 2000, p. 17). Literacy entails knowledge of language and the ability to use it, as well as cultural understanding, belief systems, attitudes, ideals, and values that â€Å"guide our actions† in literate communities (Barton, 2007, p. 45). Literacy events shape us and our literacy practices as we engage in literacy events over our lifetimes. â€Å"Literacy has a history,† which de? es individuals as well as literate communities (Barton, 2007, p. 47). Literacy in the industrialized world â€Å"means gaining competent control of representational forms in a variety of media and learning how those forms best combine in a variety of genres and discourse† (Warschauer, 1999, p. 177). Working with Writing Systems As a de? ning function of literacy, reading is a chief focus of this chapter. Before reviewing models of L1 and L2 reading, we will consider factors that set reading apart from other skill areas. First, however, we would like to stress that language pro? iency and literacy should be viewed as interdependent. In outlining their model of how children develop language skills, language awareness, and literacy, Ravid and Tolchinsky (2002) asserted that â€Å"the reciprocal character of speech and writing in a literate community makes [language and literacy] a synergistic system where certain features (e. g. , basic syntax) originate in the spoken input† (p. 430). Meanwhile, features such as complex syntax and specialized vocabulary â€Å"originate in the written input. Together . . . they form a ‘virtual loop’ where spe ech and writing constantly feed and modify each other† (p. 30). Because written language—whether in print or hypertext form—exhibits properties that are distinct from speech (Biber, 1988, 1995; Wolf, 2007) and because texts may predetermine the range of meanings that they express, â€Å"spoken language and written language can rarely be the same† (Smith, 2004, p. 42). As a tool that â€Å"increases human control of communication and knowledge,† writing â€Å"uses a written symbol to represent a unit of language and not an object, event, or emotion directly† (Birch, 2007, p. 15). Writing practices and conventions are always deeply â€Å"socially contextualized,† nlike oral language, which entails a comparably â€Å"universal set of